Wood Carvings in English Churches (2024)

From The Art and Popular Culture Encyclopedia

Wood Carvings in English Churches (1910) by Francis Bond.

PREFACE [Gutenberg edition]

The subject dealt with in this volume, so far as the writer knows, isvirgin soil; no book has appeared, here or abroad, on the subject ofstallwork. Abroad, the great mass of stallwork has perished; sometimesat the hands of pious vandals, often through neglect, more often stillthrough indifference to or active dislike of mediaeval art. In thestallwork of Belgium not a single tabernacled canopy remains; in Franceand Italy the great majority of the Gothic stalls have been replaced bywoodwork of the Classical design that was dear to the seventeenth andeighteenth centuries; only in Spain can the wealth and splendour ofEnglish stallwork be rivalled. In England a great amount of magnificentstallwork still remains; on the stallwork indeed and the concomitantscreens time and labour and money were lavished without stint in thelast two centuries of Gothic art. Hitherto, however, this importantdepartment of English mediaeval design has almost wholly lackedrecognition and appreciation; attention had not been called to itsvalue in the study of artistic woodwork, and even the most splendidexamples of this branch of English art have been passed over withuncomprehending indifference. Yet it is no overstatement to say thatthere is nothing in this country more consummate in design or executionthan the stallwork of Lancaster, Chester, Ripon, and Manchester. To mostof the readers of this volume the illustrations which have been heregathered together will come as a revelation of beauty and interest. Itis to be hoped that the book will help to inform those who are heritorsof a great artistic past, will make them proud of their heritage asEnglishmen, and faithful to preserve it and hand it on in turnunimpaired to their successors. The art is in the main English {viii}art, as English as the timber in which it is wrought, and deserves theattention of all English-speaking people the world over, who inheritequally with ourselves the good things that remain from the England ofold.

This book, like the others in the series, owes much of any value it maypossess to the generous and ready co-operation of many lovers of mediævalart. For photographs and drawings the writer is indebted to the Rev. G. B.Atkinson, Mr A. W. Anderson, A.R.I.B.A., Mr J. H. Bayley, Mr C. E. S.Beloe, Dr G. G. Buckley, Dr Oscar Clark, Mr F. H. Crossley, Rev. E.Hermitage Day, Mr W. Marriott Dodson, Mr G. C. Druce, Mr A. Gardner, Mr S.Gardner, Mr G. F. Gillham, Mr C. Goulding, Mr Charles de Gruchy, Mr F. J.Hall, Mr J. F. Hamilton, Mr P. Mainwaring Johnston, F.S.A., ProfessorLethaby, Mr W. Maitland, Mr Hugh McLachlan, A.R.I.B.A., Mr C. F. Nunneley,Mr H. Plowman, Rev. G. H. Poole, Mr Alan Potter, Miss E. K. Prideaux, Rev.G. W. Saunders, Mr S. Smith, Mr J. C. Stenning, Mr F. R. Taylor, Mr G. H.Tyndall, Mr G. H. Widdows, A.R.I.B.A., Rev. W. E. Wigfall, Mr A. J. Wilson,Mr E. W. M. Wonnacott, F.S.I. The writer is indebted to the Society ofAntiquaries and to the Wiltshire Archæological Society for the use oforiginal drawings.

The revision of the proofs has kindly been undertaken by Rev. R. A. Davisand Rev. C. A. Norris; to the former and to the Rev. A. Bayley the writeris indebted for many valuable suggestions with respect to changes oforientation and the arrangements of chancels. The illustrations arereproduced by the Grout Engraving Company. The text is preceded by abibliography and lists of measured drawings, and is followed by an index toplaces and illustrations and a subject index. {ix}

The following is a list of the series of Church Art Handbooks in course ofpublication by the Oxford University Press:--

CHURCH ART IN ENGLAND.

1. SCREENS AND GALLERIES IN ENGLISH CHURCHES. By Francis Bond. 6s._Published._

2. FONTS AND FONT COVERS. By Francis Bond. 12s. _Published._

3. WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHES: I. MISERICORDS. By Francis Bond. 7s.6d. _Published._

4. WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHES: II. STALLWORK, THRONES, AND CHAIRS.By Francis Bond. 6s. _Published._

5. WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHES: III. CHURCH CHESTS, ALMERIES, ORGANCASES, DOORS, ALMS AND COLLECTING BOXES. By P. M. Johnston. _Inpreparation._

6. WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHES: IV. BENCH ENDS, POPPY HEADS, ANDPEWS. By Alfred Maskell. _In preparation._

7. THE ARCHITECTURAL HISTORY OF THE ENGLISH MONUMENT. By James Williams._In preparation._

_Uniform with the above._

8. WESTMINSTER ABBEY. By Francis Bond. 10s. _Published._

9. MILITARY ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND. By A. Hamilton Thompson. _Inpreparation._

 * * * * *

 CONTENTS

 PART I

 CHAPTER PAGE

 I. DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION, AND COST OF STALLS 1

 II. POSITION, NUMBER, AND ARRANGEMENT OF STALLS 16

 III. CANOPIED STALLS 29

 IV. TABERNACLED STALLS 51

 V. RENAISSANCE STALLWORK 75

 VI. STALLS IN PARISH CHURCHES 85

 PART II

 VII. BISHOPS' THRONES 101

 VIII. CHAIRS IN CHANCELS 111

 * * * * * {xiii}

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ABERDEEN. Macgibbon and Ross in _Castellated and Domestic Architecture ofScotland_, ii. 105.

BEVERLEY MINSTER. T. T. Wildridge on the Misericords. Hull, 1879.

BLOMFIELD, REGINALD. _History of Renaissance Architecture in England._ 2vols. London, 1897.

BURY, T. T. _Remains of Ecclesiastical Woodwork._ London, 1847.

CANTERBURY. Professor Willis' _Canterbury Cathedral_. 1845.

CAMBRIDGE, KING'S COLLEGE. Willis and Clark in _Architectural History ofthe University of Cambridge_. 1886.

CARLISLE. R. W. Billings. _Carlisle Cathedral._ 1840.

CARYL COLEMAN on "Episcopal Thrones and Pulpits" in _Architectural Record_,xi. 1.

CARTMEL PRIORY CHURCH. Paper by F. A. Paley; and James Stockdale's _AnnalesCaermoelenses_. Ulverston, 1872.

CHESTER. Dean Howson's _Handbook on Chester Cathedral_; Appendix iii.Measured Drawings of Stalls by J. McLachlan in _Builder_, 10. iii. 1900.

COX AND HARVEY. _English Church Furniture._ 1907.

DUNBLANE. Macgibbon and Ross in _Ecclesiastical Architecture of Scotland_,ii. 105.

DURHAM. R. W. Billings. _Durham Cathedral._ 1843.

ELY. Rev. D. J. Stewart. _Ely Cathedral._ 1868.

GOTCH, J. A. _Early Renaissance Architecture in England._ 1901.

HALIFAX. Pamphlet on the Woodwork of Halifax Parish Church, by Dean Savage.

LINCOLN MINSTER. Prebendary Wickenden in _Associated Societies' Reports_,xv. 179; and _Archæological Journal_, 1881, pp. 43-61.

{xiv} MANCHESTER CATHEDRAL. J. S. Crowther. Plates 24-26 and 30.Manchester, 1893.

NORWICH CATHEDRAL. Rev. D. J. Stewart in _Archæological Journal_, xxxii.18; and Henry Harrod in _Castles and Convents in Norfolk_; Norwich, 1857.

RIPON MINSTER. J. T. Fowler in _Surtees Society_. Vols. 64, 74, 78, 81.

ROCHESTER. W. H. St John Hope's _Rochester Cathedral_. 1900; and _SpringGardens Sketch Book_, ii. 46.

ST ASAPH. Murray's _Welsh Cathedrals_, 267.

ST DAVID'S CATHEDRAL. Murray's _Welsh Cathedrals_, p. 134.

Jones and Freeman's _St David's_. 1856.

SHAW, HENRY. _Ancient Furniture._ London, 1836.

VIOLLET-LE-DUC on _Stalle_, in vol. viii., p. 464, of the _Dictionnaireraisonné de l'architecture française_.

WELLS CATHEDRAL. Canon Church in _Archæologia_, lv. 319.

WINDSOR, ST GEORGE'S CHAPEL. W. H. St John Hope in _Archæologia_, liv. 115.

WESTMINSTER ABBEY. Neale and Brayley's _History of Westminster Abbey_:London, 1818. Pugin's _Specimens of Gothic Architecture_, 1821. Lethaby's_Westminster Abbey_, 1906.

MEASURED DRAWINGS IN "ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION SKETCH BOOK."

 BEVERLEY ST MARY. C. de Gruchy. 3. vii. 9-11. BOSTON. A. S. Anderson. 1. x. 8. BROADWATER, Sussex. A. H. Hart. 2. vii. 9. CHESTER CATHEDRAL. H. B. Bare. 1. v. 24. CHICHESTER HOSPITAL. H. Goodall. 1879. ---- P. D. Smith. 2. x. 10, 11. CLIFFE, Kent. H. Goodall. 2. 1. 15. {xv} DUNBLANE. T. MacLaren. 3. v. 6. FAIRFORD, Gloucester. J. H. Bryan. 1. vi. 15. HEMINGBOROUGH, Yorks. C. de Gruchy. 3. x. 40. HIGHAM FERRERS. Lacy W. Ridge. 1. iii. 71. HOLDENBY, Northants. T. Garratt. 1. ix. 20, 21. IRCHESTER, Northants. H. B. Bare. 1. v. 24. LANCASTER. J. Strong. 3. 1. 36, 37. ---- E. E. Deane. 2. iv. 23. LINCOLN MINSTER. T. C. Yates. 1. xii. 25-27. ---- C. A. Nicholson. 2. xii. 32. LYNN ST MARGARET. C. A. Nicholson. 2. xii. 20. MANCHESTER CATHEDRAL. J. Harold Gibbons. 3. ix. 29, 30. MONTGOMERY, Wales. Sydney Vacher. 2. iv. 33. RICHMOND, Yorks. E. Eldon Deane. 2. iii. 25. SALISBURY CATHEDRAL. G. P. Bankart. 2. ix. 26. SHIMPLING, Norfolk. E. C. Lee. 1. iii. 23. WARWICK, Beauchamp Chapel. G. Somers Clarke. 1. ix. 3. WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL. L. G. Detmar. 3. vii. 59. ---- J. H. Gibbons. 3. vii. 60.

MEASURED DRAWINGS IN "SPRING GARDENS SKETCH BOOK."

 CHICHESTER CATHEDRAL. G. G. Scott, jun. i. 28, and ii. 61, 62, 63. CONWAY, North Wales. A. Baker, v. 71. IRTHLINGBOROUGH, Northants. J. Medland. i. 58. REEPHAM, Norfolk. J. Medland. iii. 41. ROCHESTER CATHEDRAL. J. T. Micklethwaite. ii. 46. {xvi} SALL, Norfolk. H. Walker, viii. 20-22. ST PAUL'S CATHEDRAL, London. S. Clarke and J. S. Middleton. 1878. WINCHESTER CATHEDRAL; LADY CHAPEL. W. Niven. vi. 67-72. WINTHORPE, Lincolnshire. H. Vaughan. vi. 53.

MEASURED DRAWINGS IN "JOHN O' GAUNT'S SKETCH BOOK."

 ST MARY, LANCASTER. W. Goddard. i. 9-13. LANCHESTER, DURHAM. C. C. Hodges, ii. 16. MANCHESTER CATHEDRAL. A. Mattinson. i. 35 and 36.

 * * * * * {1}

STALLS AND TABERNACLE WORK IN ENGLISH CHURCHES

PART I

CHAPTER I

STALLS IN CHURCHES OF MONKS AND CANONS

In all churches of monks and canons, whether secular canons or canonsfollowing the Augustinian, Premonstratensian, Gilbertine or other Rule,stalls were placed in the choir. These stalls were occupied either by themonks or by the canons and their deputies and by men singers andchoristers; there was also a limited lay use. The stalls had seats; these,however, were occupied for but short portions of a service: during thegreater part of each service the occupants of the stalls stood or knelt.The seats turned up on a pivot, as may be seen by comparing those ofBeverley St Mary (2) with those of Christchurch (2); and when they wereturned up, a small ledge underneath the seat gave a little support to anyone standing in the stall; for his comfort also there was usually acircular projecting ledge behind him, against which he could lean his back;_e.g._, at Beverley St Mary, but not at Balsham (3); also he could rest hishands on the shoulders of the stall, when standing, as at Beverley St Maryand Balsham. An elbow was often provided lower down, for use when he wasseated; as in the two above-mentioned churches. Above was usually some formof canopy, varying from a cornice of slight projection, as at Balsham, tosuch tabernacled spires as those of Beverley Minster (27). In front of thestalls, except sometimes the front stall occupied by choir boys, was a deskfor service books. Every part of the stallwork was carefully designed; andparochial, collegiate and monastic stalls alike were constantly growing inimportance and loveliness up to the Dissolution. {2}

 [Illustration: Christchurch]

 [Illustration: Beverley St Mary's]

{3}

 [Illustration: Balsham] [Illustration: Beverley Minster]

{4}

 [Illustration: St Luke] [Illustration: St Matthew]

 [Illustration: St John] [Illustration: St Mark]

Christ Church, Newgate Street

{5}

 [Illustration: Lincoln]

The upper shoulder was usually simply molded, as at Beverley St Mary; itrarely took the form of an animal, as at Balsham. Usually the lower elbowwas simply molded, as in Beverley Minster (3); sometimes it terminated in amask, an animal or foliage; as in the lower range of stalls at Christchurch(2) and at Cartmel (80); in Beverley St Mary there is an angel in front ofeach of the lower elbows. As a rule, the projecting ends of the elbows werecarried down as supports, _e.g._, at Beverley Minster; sometimes, however,a shaft or pair of shafts is introduced, as at Balsham, Beverley St Mary,Hereford All Saints (44); Dunblane (67) and Christchurch (2), where theyare highly enriched. The upper part of the back of the stall is usuallypanelled; _e.g._, Winchester (35), Chichester (36). Hereford All Saints(44), Balsham (3). In the sixteenth century, however, panelling became lesscommon; at Dunblane the stall backs are plain (67); at Cartmel they arefilled in with scrolls and fretwork (80); at King's College, Cambridge,with coats of arms (78); at Christchurch with carvings of masks and animals(76). In Wren's church at Christ Church, Newgate Street, the panels of thestalls have fine carvings of St Matthew (4), St Mark (4), St Luke (4), StJohn (4), the Last Supper and other subjects. The desks also usually havetraceried panelling in front and at their ends, which is often of muchimportance in helping to fix the date of the stalls; _e.g._, at Chester(24), Manchester (6), Trunch (85) and Stowlangtoft (91). At Lincoln thepanels of the lowest rows of desks contain alternately the figures of aking and of an angel with a musical instrument (5). On the stall ends waslavished the best artistic talent of the day; there are magnificentexamples at Chester (9), Ripon (8) and Beverley Minster (7); very fine alsoare those in Bishop Tunstall's chapel in Durham castle. On the example fromManchester is an impaled shield, displaying on the dexter half the lettersI. B. (_i.e._, John Beswick, donor {6} of the northern stalls), a crossintervening, and beneath on a chevron seven nails or cloves. The sinisterhalf is occupied by a demi-virgin issuing out of an orle of clouds. Theillustrations from Ripon shew the stalls of the Archbishop of York and theMayor of the city (8). In the former the poppy head takes the form of anelephant holding a man in his trunk, and carrying a castle filled withsoldiery; in front of the elephant is a centaur (renewed); below is a largemitre studded with precious stones (_mitra preciosa_) above a shieldcharged with the three stars of St Wilfrid, the patron saint of theMinster, and supported by two angels, between whom is a scroll with thedate 1494. Attached to the latter is a collared baboon; beneath is a shieldcharged with the arms of the see of York, two keys in saltire. Of the twoexamples illustrated from Chester (10), one represents the Annunciation;the other is a most elaborate Jesse Tree (9).

 [Illustration: Manchester]

The ends of the desks usually terminate in poppy heads; at {7} Chester,Ripon, Manchester and Beverley there are magnificent examples. AtBlythburgh, Suffolk (11), is a foliated poppy head with a lion in front; infront of the desks and those on the opposite side of the chancel are nichescontaining statuettes of the apostles; these stalls were brought into thechancel from the Hopton chapel, which is said to have been founded in 1452;the Hopton arms appear on the bench end. There are interesting desks in thegreat church of Walpole St Peter, Norfolk (12). When Edmund the King of theEast Saxons was shot to death by the Danes and afterwards beheaded, hishead was guarded by a wolf; the scene is depicted here and up and down allEast Anglia; the whole story is told in six foliated capitals in the northporch of Wells cathedral, which is early in the thirteenth century. AtStowlangtoft, Suffolk, the poppy head consists of a vested priest readingat a lectern or altar (91).

 [Illustration: Beverley Minster]

Besides stalls for monks, clergy and singers, benches or {8} stalls aresometimes found for members of a church gild, as at Fressingfield, Suffolk;or those now used by almsmen at Etwall, Derbyshire, on which the date 1635is inscribed; the Jacobean armchair motif is prominent; nevertheless thereis Gothic cusping at the back; pegs are thoughtfully provided for thealmsmen's hats (13).

 [Illustration: Ripon] [Illustration: Ripon]

{9}

 [Illustration: Chester]

{10} The stalls are generally constructed very solidly. The ends of a roware inserted in a strong sill, into which the standards for the supports ofthe book board are also inserted. The elbows are in one solid piece and areframed into the backs of the stalls; they are further secured by the heavycapping above, which admirably connects and strengthens the work. On eitherside the elbow is sunk to enable the seat to be turned up on its hinges andto afford it support when down. The seats are generally about an inch inthickness, the misericords projecting about five inches. As the entire seatis got out of one solid piece of wood, the time expended on each must havebeen very considerable; and difficulties in the grain without doubtfrequently added immensely to the labour. The work is often cut across thegrain and worked with much skill. Great care was taken in some instances tomatch the wood; _e.g._, in the panelled backs of the stalls in Henry theSeventh's chapel.[1]

 [Illustration: Chester]

The construction of the tabernacled canopies is well seen in the set ofillustrations from Chester cathedral. In Lincoln Minster, where they are ofsomewhat simpler type, they may be described as follows. The canopies arehexagonal, supported on shafts, which have clustered niches above theirproper capitals; the stalls of the Chancellor and Treasurer, which are atthe extreme east on either side of the choir, have winged seraphs in theircapitals. The niches have ogee canopies bowing forward in front of theirtrue gables, with various small heads and faces on the hip-knobs. A secondstory of the canopy contains a niche, square in plan, but set lozenge wise,covered with a lofty pinnacle, and flanked by open screenwork with highflying buttresses, nearly all of which have lost their crockets. All theniches originally contained statues. The loss of these greatly damaged thegeneral effect--the alternation of light and shadow, the play of line andthe added mass. Now that the statues have been replaced, the generalcharacter intended to be impressed on the design can be well realised(52).[2] {11}

 [Illustration: Blythburgh]

The cost of woodwork so elaborate as that of the later stalls, especiallythose with tabernacled canopies, was very great. At Wells the stalls,destroyed in 1848--another example of "restoration"--were begun in 1325;each resident canon paid 30 _solidi_ for his own stall, and the stalls wereto cost altogether £1,200. The non-resident canons, having subscribedlittle or nothing, were ordered in 1337 to make up a deficit of £200 forthe completion of the stalls.[3] As the number of stalls needed at Wellswould be about sixty, it follows that the expenditure on each stall was tobe £20, which in our money might be £300; giving a grand total of about£18,000. The stalls at Amiens number 116, and were put up between 1508 and1522. Viollet-le-Duc computes that in 1866 they could not have been put upfor less than £20,000.[4] But they do not possess tabernacled spirelets,{12} having a comparatively simple horizontal cresting. At Windsor in 1483six canopies cost £40; thus sixty would cost £400, or in our money about£4,800; _i.e._, about £80 each; but this expenditure relates to thecanopies only, and not to the stalls or the misericords, or the lowerstalls and desks; if the cost of these be added, the cost might be as greatas at Wells. Few probably realise the vast expenditure which ourforefathers gladly undertook not only on the building but the equipment oftheir churches: in a church of the first rank, such as Exeter cathedral,the cost of the altar, reredos, sedilia, bishop's throne, canopied stallsand pavement would hardly fall short of £30,000 of our money; which isexclusive of the cost of the masonry, vault, timber roof and leading, andstained glass.

 [Illustration: Walpole St Peter's]

As regards the arrangement of the stalls, as many as there were room forwere placed at the back of the choir screen, usually two or three on eitherside of the western doorway of the choir. The juxtaposition of screen andstalls gives some very beautiful effects, _e.g._, at Chaddesden, Derbyshire(99); still more so is this the case when screen and stalls are of the samedesign, as at Chester (24), where the screen was designed in accordancewith the stallwork by Sir Gilbert Scott. {13}

 [Illustration: Etwall]

As to the _place of honour_ in the stalls, that raises some interestingpoints. There were no less than three places of honour in a chancel; ineach case the place of honour was to the right, because it was written inthe Psalms, "Sit thou on my _right hand_"; and because of the words of theCreed, "sitteth on the _right hand_ of God the Father Almighty"; first, theright hand or north side of the altar, facing the west; second, the firstseat to the right, or on the south side, of the entrance to the chancelthrough the choir doorway; thirdly, the extreme right to the east, ornearest the altar, of the south row of stalls. In the sanctuary the LordChrist was conceived to be in real, corporeal presence, face to face withHis people, His right hand to the north, His left hand to the south. In thesanctuary therefore the place of honour was on the north; and to this daywhen a bishop visits a parish church, his chair is placed north of thealtar; the gospel also is read on the north side, the epistle on the south.In several churches in Derbyshire there are stone "gospel-desks" affixed tothe north wall of the chancel. Turning to the choir, things are different.When the procession enters the choir from the nave through the screendoorway, the right of the return stalls is the place of honour. Here in acathedral of the old foundation, _i.e._, one which has always been servedby secular canons, such as Lincoln, Wells, Hereford, the dean sits on theright, and the subdean or the precentor on the left of the gangway. In amonastic church the abbot sat on the south, the prior on the north side.But sometimes a monastic church, _e.g._, Ely, Winchester, Norwich, was alsothe cathedral of a bishop, who was _ipso facto_ abbot. In such a church thebishop should sit on the right-hand side of the return stall; at Ely thereis no bishop's throne, and he occupies that position to this day. {14}

 [Illustration: Beverley Minster] [Illustration: Beverley Minster]

{15} Where a bishop's throne was erected, it was placed on the south sideof the choir, which is ecclesiastically always favoured more than thenorth. Of the stalls on the south side of a choir the one most to the rightis of course the easternmost; and it is here that the ancient thronesremain of the bishops of Exeter, St David's and Durham. Again, even if itwas not a cathedral church, there were occasions when it was not convenientfor an abbot to be so remote from the altar as the return stalls, _e.g._,at certain portions of the Mass; for such occasions alternative seats wereprovided for the abbot and prior; the former occupying the easternmoststall on the south side, the prior that on the north. At Peterborough thereis evidence that the abbot's seat was on the south, at the east end of thechoir, near the _ostium presbyterii_.[5] At Ripon the bishop occupies theeasternmost stall in the south side, which from the carving of a mitre atthe back appears to have been originally assigned to the Archbishop ofYork; the place of honour opposite is occupied by the Wakeman or Mayor ofthe city.

 * * * * * {16}

CHAPTER II

POSITION, NUMBER AND ARRANGEMENT OF STALLS

The history of the changes of position of the stalls of the clergy is oneof the most curious and least understood episodes in ecclesiology; it maybe worth while therefore to go into it somewhat at length, and to begin atthe beginning. As regards what was at all times the main service in thechurch, the Mass, there were two conditions which it was desirable to bearin mind in church planning. One was that the celebrant should face to theEast; the other that the congregation should face to the East. In theearliest Christian days the latter was most often disregarded. The earliestarrangement, normally, of a Christian church was that the sanctuary,containing the altar, should be to the west, and that the laity should bein the nave occupying the eastern portion of the church. At this time thewestern portion of the church consisted of a semicircular apse. This apsehad a double function. On the chord of it was placed the High altar (in theearliest days it was the only altar); and to the west of it stood thecelebrant facing east and facing the congregation, as he does to this dayat St Ambrogio, Milan, and other churches which retain this primitive plan.Behind the altar, ranged round the apse, were the seats of the clergy,having in the centre the throne of the bishop. Thus the apse, like thechancel of an English parish church, had a double function; the portioncontaining the altar was the sanctuary, the portion containing the seats ofthe bishop and his presbyters was the choir; basilicas so orientated weredivided into nave, sanctuary, choir; whereas English parish churches divideinto nave, choir, sanctuary. Many examples of basilicas with eastern naveand western choir still survive in Rome, Dalmatia, and Istria. To this dayin Milan cathedral and St Mark's, Venice, the stalls of the clergy andsingers are placed on either side of and at the back of the high altar; theapse, with infinite loss to the dignity of the services, being made toserve both as sanctuary and choir.

{17}

 [Illustration: Lincoln]

{18}

 [Illustration: York Minster]

{19}

There is, however, an alternative plan, which may have been in use from thefirst simultaneously with the other. At any rate it can be but littlelater, for in 386 was begun the important church of St Paul _extra muros_at Rome, with apse to the east and nave to the west. By this alteration, ifno further change had been made, the congregation would face eastward, butthe celebrant and the bishop with his presbyters westward. Strangelyenough, this curious arrangement was actually adopted at least once inEngland. In the walling of the semicircle of the cathedral apse at Norwichthere still remains the bishop's throne and portions of the seats of hisclergy. And since Norwich cathedral is not orientated to the west, but tothe east, it follows that the people faced east and the bishop and clergywest; it is hardly conceivable, however, that the celebrant can have facedwest. Such a disposition can never have been but rare. A new arrangementwas made; in the first place the celebrant was made to face eastward, withhis back to the congregation, thus permanently obscuring their view of thealtar and of many portions of the office; in spite of its obvious and greatdisadvantages this position has been retained in the vast majority ofWestern churches ever since. There remained the question of the seating ofthe bishop and presbyters. The remedy adopted was to transfer them from theapse to the nave; the result being that they sat to the west instead of tothe east of the altar. In this second position for some considerable timethe seats of the clergy remained. At S. Clemente, S. Maria in Cosmedin,[6]and other basilican churches in Rome, the seats of the clergy still remainin the eastern bays of the nave, separated off, however, all round by lowmarble screens, which, at S. Clemente, are mainly those of the sixthcentury church.

Great was the revolution wrought in church planning by the determinationthat the laity, clergy, and celebrant should all alike face East. To theCatholic believer nothing was of more mystic import than the orientation ofthe church. He prayed toward the East, toward the Holy Land where his Lordlived and died and was buried; he looked forward to the dawn of that daywhen He should come from the East to judge the quick and dead.

"Our life lies eastward; every day Some little of that mystic way By trembling feet is trod; In thoughtful fast and quiet feast Our heart goes travelling to the East To the incarnate God; {20} Still doth it eastward turn in prayer And rear its saving altar there; Still doth it eastward turn in creed, While faith in awe each gracious deed Of her dear Saviour's love doth plead; Still doth it turn at every line To the fair East, in sweet mute sign That through our weary strife and pain We crave our Eden back again."[7]

The next step appears first in ninth century churches, and in the plan ofthe monastery of St Gall. It involved no change in the position of thestalls of the clergy; but instead of being placed in the eastern bays ofthe nave, the sanctuary was lengthened to contain them. And so we reach thefamiliar parochial chancel, with its western portion forming a choir, andits eastern a sanctuary. The clergy left the nave and the laity in themidst of whom they had so long sung and prayed, and removed to the chancel,where to the north and south were solid walls, while to the west, no doubtvery shortly, was added a screen guarding the entrance to the chapel.Though the new plan made no alteration in the relative position of thestalls of the clergy, it was nevertheless a real revolution. The chancelbecame practically a secluded, closed chapel; the offices and serviceswhich had been performed in the midst of the laity became more and more theprerogative of a privileged ecclesiastical order; in the end, in thegreater churches, special altars were put up for the laity in the nave;except in the parish churches, laymen lost the right to participate inservices at the High Altar. {21}

 [Illustration: Carlisle]

In our great monastic and collegiate churches it was long before the ninthcentury innovation--viz., the insertion of the choir in the eastern limb ofthe church--was generally adopted; in some it was never adopted at all. Thetypical Cistercian churches, _e.g._, Kirkstall, reverted to the EarlyChristian arrangement, by which the eastern division of the church wasappropriated exclusively to the sanctuary; and this was the case with manyBenedictine and collegiate churches also. Till ignorant and incompetent"restorers" were let loose on them, the eastern limb of the cathedrals ofthe Secular Canons of Wells and Hereford, that of the Benedictine cathedralof Ely and others formed one vast sanctuary, the stalls being placed underthe central tower and in the eastern part of the nave; at Wells the choirhad a length of 47 feet, but the sanctuary of 67 feet. The reason why asanctuary so long was required was no doubt that it was desired to place init two altars; one, the "choir" or "matins" altar, for ordinary services;the other, the High altar, more to the east, reserved for High Mass.[8]{22}

 [Illustration: Durham]

{23} In some cases, _e.g._, at Westminster, in many Cistercian churches,and in Spanish cathedrals, the stalls were not placed under the centraltower, but still more to the west, wholly in the nave. In Gothic days,however, in English plans--Westminster is French in plan--the tendency wasmore and more to place the choir of the monastic and collegiate churches inthe eastern limb, just as in a parish church. In the cathedrals theprecedent was first set at Canterbury, where in 1096 Prior Ernulph set outa new eastern limb consisting of an eastern apse preceded by no less thannine bays. Sometimes there was a special reason for the removal of thechoir from the crossing and the nave. In several cases--in piousrecollection of the burial of many a martyr in Early Christian days down inthe catacombs of Rome--the Italian practice of constructing a crypt beneaththe eastern limb was followed. This had been so as early as St Wilfrid,671-678, whose crypts at Ripon and Hexham still survive, and in theAnglo-Saxon cathedrals of Winchester, Worcester, Rochester, Gloucester,Canterbury, York, and Old St Paul's. And when these were remodelled by theNorman conquerors, in all cases the crypt was reproduced. Such crypts ofcourse necessitate the building of the eastern limb at a higher level thancrossing and nave; in some cases, _e.g._, at Canterbury, the difference inheight is very considerable. The result must have been that where as atCanterbury the sanctuary was a long one, the High altar at its east endmust have been invisible, or nearly so, to monks seated in the crossing andnave. Consequently, first at Canterbury _c._ 1100, in the thirteenthcentury at Rochester, Old St Paul's and Worcester, and in the fourteenthcentury at Winchester and York, the stalls were removed to the easternlimb, the western portion of which now became choir. The only exceptionamong cathedrals with crypts is Gloucester, where the crypt is low and theeastern limb is short and where the stalls remain to this day beneath thecentral tower. The example set by cathedrals with crypts was soon followedby churches of every degree which had none; whether Benedictine, such as atChester, Augustinian, as at Carlisle, or served by Secular Canons, as atExeter. And so in the churches of monks, regular canons and secular canonsalike, most of the ecclesiastical authorities reverted to what had been allalong the normal plan of the English parish church, viz., an eastern limbcontaining choir as well as presbytery.[9] {24}

 [Illustration: Chester]

{25}

The length of the stalled choir varied of course with the number of monksor canons serving the church. In a church of the first rank, such asLincoln or Chester, about sixty stalls seems as a rule to have been foundsufficient. These would generally occupy three bays; where more than threebays are occupied with stalls, it is usually because more stalls have beenadded at some later period, as at Lincoln, Norwich, and Henry the Seventh'schapel, Westminster. In the centre, between the stalls, a considerablespace had to be left free, in order to leave room for processions from theHigh Altar to the lectern and to the ecclesiastics in their stalls; as wellas for processions of the whole ecclesiastical establishment on PalmSunday, Corpus Christi day, Easter Sunday and other festivals, and on everySunday in the year. The lectern also was often of great size, and a gangwayhad to be left on either side of it. In Lincoln Minster the space from onechorister's desk to the chorister's desk opposite is 18 feet: from the backof the northern to the back of the southern stalls is 40½ feet, which isabove the average breadth of an English cathedral or monastic choir. Thebreadth of the choir conditioned the whole of the planning of the church;for as a rule the nave and transepts were naturally given the same breadthas the choir, in order that the central tower should be square.

As for the number of rows of stalls on either side of the choir, it wasusually three, rising successively in height; at Lincoln the floor of theuppermost row is 2 feet 6 inches above that of the choir; the canopies rise22 feet above the floor. At Lincoln modern additions have been made; atpresent the upper row consists of 62 canopied stalls; 12 of them being"return" stalls facing east; 25 facing north and 25 facing south. Belowthem is a row of stalls without canopies; of these lower stalls there wereoriginally 46; in front of these again are the seats of the "children ofthe choir."

The number of stalls in the uppermost row was regulated in a collegiatechurch by the number of prebends founded in the church; in a monasticchurch by the number of monks in the monastery. At Westminster the numberof monks between 1339 and 1538 varied from 49 to 52, 47, 30; in the upperstalls there was accommodation for 64. At Southwell there were 16prebendaries; at times some of these were foreigners, and never visitedSouthwell or England; the rest stayed in their country parishes, and it wassometimes with great difficulty that a single prebendary could be gottogether to take charge of the Minster services; they had, however,deputies; and for them and their masters the two western bays of thepresent choir were probably appropriated. And for the meetings of thiscollegiate body, which were held seldom, and which hardly ever had anattendance of more than a half dozen prebendaries, one of the mostmagnificent Chapter houses in {26} England was built. At Wells there were54 canons or prebendaries, each with his own separate estate or prebend;the greater number of them resided on their prebendal estates in thecountry; only on rare occasions did they come up to Wells, and thenprobably only for the time occupied by some important meeting; even on suchoccasions there seem never to have been more than 20 canons present.[10]Nevertheless stalls were duly provided for the whole 54, and the Psalterwas divided into 54 portions for daily recitation by the Bishop and hiscanons. Each of these absentee canons at Wells had or was expected to havea deputy in the form of a "vicar choral" who was paid by him a smallstipend called "stall-wages." A beautiful street of little houses--one ofthe loveliest things in that loveliest of English cities--built for thevicars, still survives at Wells; others at Hereford, Lincoln, Chichesterand elsewhere. At Wells the first and highest row of stalls was in practiceoccupied by the senior canons, the priest-vicars and deacons; the secondrow by junior deacons, subdeacons and others; the third row by choristerson the foundation; in front of that was a seat for choristers on probation.The seating of the choirs, however, naturally differed with theconstitution of the collegiate body. Beverley Minster was not a cathedralproper; but its church and its establishment were on cathedral scale, andthere are no less than 68 stalls. At Beverley the exact position in theupper row of the provost, treasurer, chancellor, clerk of the works, andother dignitaries was definitely settled in 1391 by Thomas Arundel,Archbishop of York. He directed that the clerks or vicars should occupy thelower stalls, each in front of the canon, his master; and that thechoristers should sit in front of the clerks. "Clerici vero et omnes etsinguli in secunda forma qui libet coram magistro suo. Pueri vero seuchoristae ante clericos predictos loca sua teneant ut fieri consuevit etiamab antiquo."[11] At the back of the canons' stalls in many churches,_e.g._, Chester and Norwich cathedrals (48), may still be seen painted thename of the country parish where the canon's prebend lay. Appointments tosuch canonries are still regularly made; but it has become usual to stylethe occupants "honorary canons" or "prebendaries." As a matter of fact theyare just as much canons as the residentiaries. The difference is that thelatter come into residence for three months a year or longer, while theformer need not come at all; and if they did come, there is no house toreceive them nor any stipend. How the cathedral and collegiateestablishments lost, long before the Reformation, the services of the greatmajority of their staff cannot be told here; partly it arose from sheerneglect of duty, partly it was imposed on the canons by the necessity ofserving in their parish churches and of superintending their estates. {27}

 [Illustration: Beverley Minster]

{28}

At the backs of canons' stalls is sometimes painted the verse of a psalm.This refers to a very ancient usage. The daily recitation of the wholePsalter by the members of a cathedral chapter, according to the psalmsattached to their respective prebends, formed part, in the opinion of MrHenry Bradshaw, of the _Consuetudines_ introduced by the Norman bishops inthe twelfth century. In the _Liber Niger_ or _Consuetudinary_ of LincolnMinster, copies of which, earlier than 1383, remain in the Muniment Room,it is stated that "it is an ancient usage of the church of Lincoln to sayone mass and the whole psalter daily on behalf of the living and deceasedbenefactors of the church." At Wells also the whole Psalter was reciteddaily for the same pious purpose. At Lincoln tablets still are to be seenon the backs of the stalls giving the initial verse in Latin of the psalmswhich the holder of the prebend is bound to recite daily: and at theinstallation of each prebendary, the Dean calls his attention to the tabletand admonishes him not to discontinue the obligation (52). Even at StPaul's, though the original stalls all perished in the fire of 1666,fifteen of the present stalls on each side are inscribed with the Latinwords with which various psalms commence; the Psalter here being dividedinto thirty portions.

 * * * * *

{29}

CHAPTER III

CANOPIED STALLS

It is probable that all the back stalls of monastic and collegiate churcheshad originally some form of canopy. For this there was a very practicalreason, in the desire of the occupants of the stalls to have their tonsuredheads protected from down draughts, which from open triforium chambersimperfectly tiled must often have been excessive. A great number of thesecanopies have been destroyed, usually in the seventeenth and eighteenthcenturies, to make room for galleries, _e.g._, at Wells in 1590 and 1690,and Hexham in 1740.[12] In Belgium not a single set of stalls retainscanopies. When the galleries were removed in modern restorations, theancient forms of canopy were frequently not replaced, but something ofmodern design was put up. This should be borne in mind in examining thecresting of the stalls as it is at present; much of it is not originaleither in material or design.

The following is a list approximately in chronological order of some of thefinest sets of stalls in cathedral, monastic, collegiate and parochialchurches.

 Rochester Cathedral 1227 Winchester Cathedral 1305 Chichester Cathedral 1335 Ely Cathedral begun in 1338 Lancaster Church 1340 Gloucester Cathedral 1350 Lincoln Minster 1370 Abergavenny 1380 Hereford Cathedral 1380 Hereford All Saints 1380 Chester Cathedral 1390 Nantwich 1390 Stowlangtoft 1400 Wingfield, Suffolk 1415 Higham Ferrers 1415 Norwich Cathedral 1420 Carlisle Cathedral 1433 Sherborne Abbey 1436 Hereford St Peter 1450 St David's 1470 Windsor 1480 Ripon 1500 Manchester 1508 Westminster 1509 Christchurch 1515 Bristol 1520 Dunblane 1520 Beverley Minster 1520 Newark 1525 King's College, Cambridge 1533, 1633, 1676 Aberdeen 1520 Cartmel 1620 Brancepeth 1630 Durham Cathedral 1665 Bishop Auckland Chapel 1665 Sherburn Hospital, Durham 1665 Sedgefield 1680 St Paul's Cathedral 1697 Canterbury Cathedral 1704

{30}

 [Illustration: Rochester]

{31}

The stalls of the churches of Ratzburg illustrated by M. J. Gailhabaud,vol. iv., seem to be of the middle of the twelfth century; they are ofclumsy design and in a fragmentary condition. At Hastières andGendron-Celles, both near Dinant, Belgium, are simple stalls of thethirteenth century.[13]

In France the chief examples are those in Notre Dame de la Roche; fragmentsoccur also in Poitiers cathedral and the church of Saulieu.[14]

The earliest stallwork of which we have remains is in Rochester cathedral(30). From fragments which remained it was found that the stalls had beenabout 3 feet 6 inches high, and had hinged seats only 13½ inches from thefloor; there was a space of 2 feet 9 inches between the seat and the formin front, and the seat was 2 feet deep.[15] There was but a single row ofstalls, and the forms were very low; only 22¼ inches above the platform onwhich they stood. They are too low to have been used as book rests; whichindeed would have been unnecessary, as the monks knew the Psalter and theirservices by heart; the only service books employed being the big bookswhich lay on the great lectern in the gangway of the choir. It is probablethat the forms were of use at certain parts of the service when the monkswere _prostrati super formas_.[16]

 [Illustration: Westminster]

At Westminster the original stallwork of the choir has perished;fortunately, however, a sketch of a portion of it has been preserved(31).[17] That the sketch is trustworthy may be seen by comparing it withthe description of the stalls by Dart in his _Westmonasterium_ (1742), whosays that "the stalls were crowned with acute Gothic arches supported bypillars." The sketch shews slender shafts with molded capitals, neckingsand bases, supporting lancet arches which are without cusps; at the backare trifoliated lancets. The work belongs to the period when the easternbays of the nave were built, viz., 1258 to 1272. In Henry VII.'s chapel aretwo misericords of conventional foliage; no doubt they belonged originallyto Henry the Third's choir. A valuable and little known example of athirteenth century stall survives at Hemingborough, Yorkshire (87). AtPeterborough also fragments of stalls of the same century remain; but theyhave backing of Jacobean character (32). At Gloucester a fragment of athirteenth century stall has been preserved behind the seat of the Canon inresidence. {32}

 [Illustration: Peterborough]

{33}

Apart from the above, we seem to have no stallwork of earlier date than thefourteenth century. Of that period the earliest and perhaps the mostbeautiful is that in Winchester cathedral. The pulpit was given by PriorSilkstede, whose name is inscribed on it; he was prior from 1498 to 1524;the desks and stools of the upper tier have the date 1540. The canopies areof one story. Each is surmounted by a straight sided gable or pediment,which is crocketed and finialled and has compound cusping. The upper partof each gable is perforated with a multifoiled trefoil. Below, the stall isspanned by a broad pointed arch, which is subdivided into two pointed anddetached arches, with foliated cusps. These two minor arches carry circleswith varying tracery. At the back of each stall (35) is a broad archcontaining a pair of detached pointed trifoliated arches supported byshafts whose capitals are alternately molded and foliated. These two smallarches carry a circle within which is inscribed a cinquefoil, cusped andfoliated. The spandrils between each pair of containing arches at the backof the stalls are occupied by foliage admirably carved, in which arefigures of men, animals, birds, &c. There is no pronounced ogee archanywhere, though there is a suspicion of one where the open trefoils of thegables rest upon the containing arches. The tracery too of all the circlesis geometrical, _i.e._, composed of simple curves; there is no flowing orogee tracery with compound curves. It may be assumed therefore that thework is earlier than _c._ 1315. On the other hand the foliage of thespandrils has pronounced bulbous or ogee curves and the pediments containcompound cusping; both features being characteristic of ornament of thefirst half of the fourteenth century. {34}

 [Illustration: Winchester Cathedral]

{35}

 [Illustration: Winchester Cathedral]

{36}

Taking all into account, 1305 may be taken as an approximate date for thissuperb work. It is usually assigned to the year 1296, on the ground ofsimilarity of design to that of the Westminster tomb of Edmund Crouchbackwho died in that year; but that is to forget that he died in debt, leavinginstructions that he was not to be buried till his debts were paid: it islikely therefore that his tomb is several years later than 1296; indeed,except that its main arch has not ogee arches in its cusping, it is notmuch earlier in design than the adjoining tomb of Aymer de Valence, whodied in 1324. Comparison may be made also with the monument in Winchelseachurch of Gervase Alard, who was still alive in 1306; and with themonuments in Ely cathedral of Bishop Louth (_ob._ 1298) and in Canterburycathedral of Archbishop Peckham (_ob._ 1292).

 [Illustration: Chichester]

On the other hand in Chichester cathedral (36), the ogee motive is supreme.There are no more pointed arches; every arch is an ogee; and the crestingconsists of wavy tracery surmounted by a battlement. The cusping of theupper ogee arches is compound; the foliage of pronounced bulbous character.It is unlikely that this work can be much earlier than that of the Elystalls, which were not begun till 1338. On the evidence of costume andarmour it would seem that the misericords were in course of executionbetween _c._ 1320 and _c._ 1340; the stallwork would probably be the lastpart of the work; and {37} as the Chichester Records are reported to assignthe work to Bishop John Langton, who died in 1337, we may assign 1335 as anapproximate date to the stalls.

 [Illustration: Ely]

When we come to Ely, we deal with ascertained dates; it is known that thestalls were commenced in 1338. They are on {38} a noble scale, but havebeen "improved" by restorers, who among things have actually insertedBelgian carvings in the upper niches. These stalls have two distinct tiersof canopies, so that they rise to a considerable height. Each of the lowercanopies has a pointed arch with compound ogee cusping; above each of theseis a niche with three gabled canopies carrying a low spirelet which isflanked by ornate pinnacles; the whole forming a very beautifulcomposition. It is a great advance from the one-story design of Chichester(36), to the two stories of Ely.

 [Illustration: Gloucester]

The great east window of Gloucester choir was glazed _c._ 1350; by whichdate half of the stalls were ready. The northern stalls are the work ofAbbot Staunton (1337-1351); the southern of Abbot Horton (1351-1377); theyreplace thirteenth century stalls erected by Elias de Lideford. The designof the stalls is curious and interesting. In the canopy the leading motifis the "bowing ogee," repeated twice; it is well seen in the contemporarywork of the Percy monument at Beverley and the arcading of Ely Lady Chapel.The upper and acutely pointed ogee is finialled, and is flanked bybattlemented and crocketed pinnacles; behind is a battlemented, crocketedand finialled spirelet. Behind the spirelets is arcading composed of windowtracery; and above the arcading is a crested horizontal cornice. At firstsight the design looks no more advanced than that of Ely; but if thetracery of the arcading be examined, it will be found that the three lowerlights have supermullions, and that the centre-pieces are straight-sided.In woodwork, as in stone, it was at Gloucester that the reign of thestraight line commenced (38). {39}

 [Illustration: Lancaster]

{40}

Then comes a group of stalls which it is not easy to date, but all of whichare redolent of fourteenth century inspiration; those of Lancaster church,those of the cathedral and All Saints' church at Hereford, and those ofAbergavenny priory and Norwich cathedral. The Lancaster stalls are the_chef-d'oeuvre_ of English woodwork, wonderful alike in design andexecution; in woodwork they must have been in their day unrivalled; instone they find a compeer in the marvellous detail of the Percy monumentand in the still finer work at the back of the reredos in Beverley Minster.They do not shew the slightest sign of the revolution of design which hadcommenced in Gloucester transept _c._ 1330, and which by the end of thecentury was to overspread all England; they are the natural development ofthe design of the first half of the fourteenth century carried forward toan extent for which the only parallel is to be found in the highlydeveloped Flamboyant detail of French, Spanish, and Flemish design of themiddle and latter part of the fifteenth century. So inordinately Flamboyantare the traceries (41, 42) that one would unhesitatingly ascribe them toContinental artists did one not see the touch of the English craftsmaneverywhere; compare for instance the tracery shewn at the top of page 42with that of the west window of the far-away church of Snettisham,Norfolk.[18] One hesitates to assign to the Lancaster work such an earlydate; but if the Percy monument was in course of erection, as we know itwas, soon after 1340, it is quite possible that the Lancaster stalls alsodate before the arrival of the Black Death in 1349-50. After that date agreat change came over design; the rich exuberance of Ely Lady Chapel, theEaster sepulchres, sedilia and piscinas of mid-Lincolnshire and the Percymonument at Beverley, appear no more. Any lingering hesitation one mayhave, however, is removed by a scrutiny of the moldings, especially thoseof the capitals, neckings and bases;[19] they are just those which were infashion _c._ 1340. {41}

 [Illustration: Lancaster] [Illustration: Lancaster]

{42}

 [Illustration: Lancaster]

{43} The Lancaster stalls may be regarded as the Flamboyant version of thestallwork of Winchester cathedral, with which they should be compared (34).Like the Winchester stalls, they are but one story high; they do not aspireto the two stories of Ely and Norwich. There is a tradition,unsubstantiated, that these stalls came from co*ckersand abbey in 1543. ButSt Mary's, Lancaster, was a priory church attached, first, to the abbey ofSt Martin, Sées, in Normandy, and then, when alien priories weresuppressed, transferred to Sion abbey, Middlesex. In 1367 Lancaster prioryhad a revenue of £80, say £1,200 per annum, and was quite able to providestalls for itself.

 [Illustration: Hereford Cathedral]

The lower part of each canopy consists of an ogee arch; this is somewhatlow, but in compensation is surmounted by an exceptionally lofty pediment.Both ogee arch and straight-sided pediment are filled with perforatedtracery. All this tracery, both above and below, differs from bay to bay;the craftsman would not and could not repeat them; he was simplyoverflowing with inventive design. The tracery of the ogee arch rests on anarch, usually an ogee arch, which is cusped in ogee, semicircular orsegmental curves, tipped with charmingly diversified pendants of faces,fruits and foliage; the interval between {44} the two arches is filled witha network of compound curves--a labyrinth of beautiful forms--enticing theeye to attempt to follow their ramifications by ever new routes; eachlittle pattern is cusped, and each has the ogee curve at one end or bothends, or at one side (41). Equally ingenious and diversified is the tracerywhich fills up the tall pediment. The broad band of foliated ornament,which forms a kind of continuous crocketing, in spite of much mutilationremains the richest example in English woodwork.[20] Notice too the littlemasks which immortalise the features of the Lancaster men of 1340;sometimes no doubt they represent the carvers themselves.

 [Illustration: Hereford All Saints']

{45}

 [Illustration: Hereford All Saints']

In Hereford cathedral the stalls are of one story and have a horizontalcresting. At the back of each stall is an ogee arch, and in front a bowingogee arch; there is some lack of contrast. The sides of the upper ogees areprettily flanked by graduated window tracery; and the great multiplicationand predominance of the vertical line makes it likely that the stalls wereput up rather after than before the Black Death (43). {46}

 [Illustration: Abergavenny]

 [Illustration: Wingfield]

{47}

At All Saints', Hereford, is a range of stalls of remarkable beauty. Theyhave the bowing ogees, the compound cusping, the intersecting wavy traceryof the first half of the fourteenth century; yet the cusping and traceryare not in the early manner. In the cathedral the bowing ogees meet at anangle of nearly 45°; at All Saints', they project but slightly, meetingwith a very obtuse point. All Saints' has ogee canopies under a covedhorizontal tester with supporting shafts, as in the cathedral. In thelatter the cornice of the tester on the south side has a perforatedbattlemented parapet; that on the north (43) has brattishing; at AllSaints' both sides have brattishing, but the pattern is not the same.Hereford suffered much from the Black Death of 1350, and it is not likelythat a parish church would be able to afford such costly stalls before thelast quarter of that century. We may suggest 1380 as a probable date. Itmust be remembered that nearly all changes in mediæval design originatedwith the stone mason; it was some time before they were caught up by thecraftsmen in other materials (44).

To the exquisite stallwork of Abergavenny the remarks made on that at AllSaints', Hereford, again apply; it is redolent of the inspiration of thefirst half of the fourteenth century; but its effects are gained in atotally different way: this also may be assigned to the last quarter of thefourteenth century;[21] say _c._ 1380 or later (46).

The stalls at Wingfield, Suffolk, might date from 1362, when the church wasmade collegiate; but much work was done in the time of Michael de la Pole,2nd Duke of Suffolk, and his wife, Catherine Stafford; he died in 1415; thebadges of Wingfield and Stafford--a wing and the Stafford knot--are seen onthe arches between the de la Pole chapel and the chancel. The design of thestalls and desks is such as might be expected early in the fifteenthcentury, especially in East Anglia, where fourteenth century designlingered long (46). {48}

 [Illustration: Norwich Cathedral]

At first sight the Norwich stalls might seem to belong to the first half ofthe fourteenth century; as in the stalls of Chichester, the lower canopieshave ogee arches; while there is a second story above, as at Ely. Theexuberance of earlier design is present in the cusping and the crockets;notice how the crockets vary from bay to bay, one set being actuallycomposed of hawks. Nevertheless supermullions rise from the apex of eachminor arch of the window tracery of the spandrils, and are conclusiveevidence that the date is considerably later. The stalls and misericordsbelow are of two periods. In the earlier set of twenty-four the seats arepolygonal; the armour depicted is that of the last half of the fourteenthcentury, and there are arms of donors who died respectively in 1380, 1400and 1428; so that we may assign the approximate date of 1390 to this set ofmisericords. The remaining thirty-eight misericords have seats curved onplan, and, according to Mr Harrod, are not later than the middle of thefifteenth century. Now the canopies extend above both sets of misericords;the probability therefore is that they were put up together with the secondset of misericords. But there is one curious bit of evidence in the canopywork itself, which is here illustrated (48); viz, that one set of crocketsconsists of hawks with jesses. Now on the arms of John Wakering, who wasbishop from 1416 to 1425 are three hawks' lures;[22] that being so, theprobability is that the whole of the canopies, and the second set ofmisericords as well, are {49} of the approximate date of 1420. Though somuch later than the Ely stalls, the absence of the spirelet and theretention of the horizontal cornice marks this, in spite of much beauty ofdetail, as a retrogressive design.

The stalls of Sherborne abbey, Dorset, are somewhat of a puzzle (49). Thearch design, with the compound cusping, is in accordance with that of thelower story of the Ely stalls of 1338, except that the arches aresemicircular or nearly so; but fourteenth century exuberance andversatility have faded away; the design is regular, symmetrical, prim.There was a great fire in Sherborne Minster in 1436; the piers of the choirare still reddened with the flames; the former stalls would certainly beconsumed, and these no doubt are their successors.

 [Illustration: Sherborne]

The stalls at Hereford St Peter and Stowlangtoft are illustrated to shewthat not only monastic and cathedral churches, but parish churches alsopossessed abundance of fine stallwork. Stowlangtoft is a remote Suffolkvillage; but possesses a magnificent set of the original carved benches inthe nave and stalls in the chancel (91). The woodwork is probably of the{50} date of the church, which seems to have been rebuilt late in thefourteenth or early in the following century; the Hereford church is a townchurch; its stalls appear to be well on in the fifteenth century (89).

In Bristol cathedral the stalls consist of a range of traceried panelssurmounted by a horizontal coved cornice. There are now twenty-eightstalls. They bear the arms and initials of Abbot Elyot (1515-1526).

At St David's a totally new departure occurs in stall design; the motif nowbeing clearly taken from an oak screen surmounted by a parapetted loft(109). In the fourteenth century stalls illustrated the ogee arch was thecharacteristic feature; in the fifteenth century the fashion was to take anelongated ogee arch, and truncate it, employing only the upper portion withthe concave curve; these semi-ogees occur everywhere both in stone andwood; they are well seen at St David's in the backing of the stalls. Thiswork has superseded that which was ordered to be put up in 1342 by BishopGower, only one fragment of which remains; it was found above the presentcanopy and consisted of a finialled ogee canopy, agreeing nearly in detailand character with those portions of the Bishop's throne which are ofGower's time.[23] The present stalls, misericords, stall backs and canopyare all fifteenth century work; on the dean's stall (in this cathedral, asnowadays at Southwell, the bishop was also dean) are the arms of BishopTully (1460-1481), and on the Treasurer's stall is the name of POLE, whowas treasurer in the bishop's latter days. The parapets above cannot havebeen added till the sixteenth century; for they terminate to the east inscrolls of the form common in cinquecento work.

 * * * * * {51}

CHAPTER IV

TABERNACLED STALLS

In the latter years of the fourteenth century we come to a new form ofstall design; one in which the English carvers won their greatest triumphs,and which became the standard and typical design for English stalls. It isseen in the magnificent tabernacled stalls of Lincoln, Chester, Nantwich,Carlisle, Windsor, St Asaph, Ripon, Manchester, Westminster, Beverley andDurham. To distinguish this group, we may term it "stallwork withtabernacled canopies," or, more shortly, "tabernacled stalls." Though new,it is, like all design, based on earlier models. At Ely (37) two distinctand conflicting designs are combined; to those two the Lincoln carvers gaveunity (17). The stallwork at Ely is in two stories; but they are notcorrelated in any way. The upper story consists of canopied niches, nowcontaining figures, formerly probably occupied by paintings. At Lincoln thelower story was omitted, reducing the elevation to a single story; whilethe niches of the Ely upper story were brought low down, and made toenshrine the vested canons below. The Lincoln niches, however, are of moreelaboration than those of Ely; in the latter each niche was fronted bythree straight-sided pediments; in the former the pediments arehollow-sided, and in front of each is a bowing ogee arch. Then these nichesare repeated above, except that each niche is single instead of beingtriple, and enshrines a statuette of wood, and is flanked by windowtracery. Moreover, above each upper niche, as at Ely, rises a loftyspirelet with crockets and finials, encircled by a coronal of ogee gablesand flanked by tall slender pinnacles, themselves also ornamented withminiature niches, crockets and finials. Also the upper portions of theshafts below are niched, crocketed and battlemented. Thus the Ely designbecomes thoroughly harmonious and at one with itself.

{52}

 [Illustration: Lincoln]

{53}

 [Illustration: Chester]

As a rule, design did not originate with the wood carver; it first foundexpression in stone. And it well may be that to earlier work executed instone rather than to the stallwork of Ely the Lincoln design is to beattributed. At any rate, the tabernacled canopies of wood are anticipatedin most marked fashion in the monument of Archbishop Stratford inCanterbury cathedral. He died in 1348; his monument is therefore earlierthan any of the tabernacled canopies in wood. It consists of two stories,with three gables below and a single niche above; then come spirelets withpinnacles between.[24] There is a similar monument to Archbishop Kemp, whodied in 1454. Of the Lincoln work Mr A. W. Pugin said that "the stalls areexecuted in the most perfect manner, not only as regards variety and beautyof ornamental design, but in accuracy of workmanship, which is frequentlydeficient in ancient examples of woodwork.... They are certainly superiorto any other choir fittings of that period remaining in England. Themisericords also are all varied in design, and consist of foliage, animals,figures and even historical subjects, beautifully designed, and executedwith surpassing skill and freedom." As the work was begun by the treasurer,John of Welbourn, who died in 1380, we may give it the approximate date of1370. This is borne out by the fact {54} that on the base of the Dean'sstall are the bearings of Dean Stretchley, who died in 1376.[25]

Judging from the armour represented on the misericords the design of theLincoln stalls was copied very soon afterwards, say _c._ 1390, in Chestercathedral, but with a magnificence of foliated ornament which isreminiscent of the glorious stalls of Lancaster. For the main lines of thedesign, however, the new type of canopy which had been worked out atLincoln was taken as a model; the details only are those of Lancaster, thegeneral design is from Lincoln. As at Lincoln, the lower canopy hasduplicated gables in front of each of the three faces of the main structureof the canopy. This main structure starts from between pinnacledbuttresses, as it were, separating each canopy; then is brought forwardlike an oriel window, having square-headed traceried windows, the wholesurmounted by a battlemented pierced parapet. In front of each face of theoriel is first a truncated ogee arch, and second, a complete ogee arch,both springing from a battlemented and pinnacled corner buttress. Thesebuttresses, whether between the canopies or in front of the corners of theoriels, are truncated, the former rising not from the shoulders of thestalls below but from angels, the latter from carved bosses or paterae. Thegables at the back spring from a higher level than those in front, and, asat Lincoln, are truncated ogee arches. The three front gables are completeogee arches, which differ from those in the Lincoln stallwork in that theirlower convex curve spreads outward again. This is an important matter; forthough this compound ogee arch is not employed in the Lincoln stalls, yetit occurs up and down the cathedral in the stonework of the fourteenthcentury; _e.g._, in the arcading under the western towers[26] put up by thesame treasurer who paid for the stalls. It is so special and characteristicto Lincoln that its presence at Chester may be taken as a decisive proof ofLincoln influence in the design of the stalls. In the upper story is acentral niche, flanked by window tracery, as at Lincoln. Above rises alofty spirelet, encircled at its base by "Lincoln ogee" gables. Between thespirelets, as at Ely and Lincoln, are tall pinnacles. The leafa*ge of thelower canopies should be compared with that of Lancaster. In the fiveexamples illustrated (53, 55, 56) it will be seen how consummate andversatile in design were these mediæval craftsmen; they were bubbling overwith design, and could not repeat themselves if they wished.[27] {55}

 [Illustration: Chester] [Illustration: Chester]

{56}

 [Illustration: Chester] [Illustration: Chester]

{57}

 [Illustration: Nantwich] [Illustration: Nantwich]

{58}

The magnificent church of Nantwich, Cheshire, was in building before theBlack Death of 1349; the work was then stopped; and when it was resumed, itwas carried out in a different style. To this later period belong the southtransept and the east window of the chancel with rectilinear tracery; it isprobable that the pulpit and stalls also belong to this second work, _c._1400. The design connects itself with that of the Lincoln and Chesterstalls in the absence of any line of demarcation between the upper andlower portions; but while that of Chester is reminiscent of earlyfourteenth century work, that of Nantwich is well advanced toward normalfifteenth century design. It is also much richer than either, the lowerstage being a mass of niches and pinnacles, with angel corbels below. Thegreat novelty at Nantwich is the absence of spirelets, the absence of whichis nobly compensated for by the increased height and prominence given tothe central of the three upper niches (57).

 [Illustration: York Minster]

The stalls of York Minster were destroyed by fire in 1819. Both in thetreatment of the supporting shafts and in the design of the single upperniches flanked by window tracery they closely resembled the Lincoln stalls,on which they were probably modelled; above the upper niches rose spireletsflanked by pinnacles. There is a marked horizontal line midway, dividingthe composition into two stories (58). The presbytery of York Minster wasbuilt between 1361 and 1370; the choir between 1380 and 1400; we maytherefore take 1390 as the approximate date of the stalls. They are alittle later than the Lincoln stalls, and probably contemporaneous withthose of Chester. A general view of the stalls appears in Drake's_Eboracum_, page 522 (18).

{59}

 [Illustration: Carlisle]

At Carlisle the stalls were erected by Bishop Strickland (1399-1413); PriorHaithwaite is said to have added the tabernacle work after the year1433:[28] it would therefore be about forty years later than that atChester (21). The lower canopy, as before, has triple gables, which aretruncated ogees, but the additional front gable of Lincoln and Chester isomitted, while the pinnacled buttresses separating the canopies are carriedby shafts standing on the shoulders of the stalls. The line of demarcationbetween the two stories, which the Lincoln and Nantwich designs hadminimised, is now emphasised by making the band of quatrefoils continuous.The upper story, which in the earlier designs had had insufficientdominance, is now heightened and enlarged; it consists of three pedestalledniches instead of one; and the flanking window tracery of Lincoln andChester, with its makeshift look, is reduced in importance, forming merelythe backing of the three upper niches. The spirelet above is also greatlyenriched, and additional pinnacles are introduced. A little prim the designmay be in comparison with the exuberance of Lincoln, Chester and Nantwich,but the proportions are fine, and were the statuettes once more in theirniches, it would be a very satisfactory composition. Such work as this haswell been resembled to "a whole wood, or say a thicket of old hawthorn withits topmost branches spared, slowly growing into stalls." {60}

 [Illustration: Ripon]

{61}

At St Asaph's cathedral the stalls and part of the canopies areancient.[29] The cathedral was gutted by fire in 1402, and the stalls werenot re-erected till 1471-1495.

Fifty years later than the Carlisle stalls were put up those of RiponMinster (60). As two of the misericords are inscribed 1489 and 1494, theycannot be earlier than the latter year. Just as the Chester stalls were acriticism of those of Lincoln, and the Lincoln stalls of those of Ely, sothe stalls of Ripon are a criticism of those of Nantwich and Carlisle. Inthe latter the upper story had been emphasised; at Ripon the bottom storyis given the dominance; compared with the simplicity of the Carlisledesign, the lower stage at Ripon, as at Nantwich, is surpassingly rich;gables and pinnacles and window tracery are loaded with beautiful detail,cusped arches are added below; finally figure sculpture is called in, andcapitals and corbels are beset with tiny angels. In the string-coursebetween the two stories quatrefoils are abandoned; it is molded, foliatedand battlemented. In the upper story reappears the forest of pinnacles ofCarlisle and the window tracery of Lincoln. Here, as elsewhere, the designsuffers grievously from the loss of the statuettes which once rangedcontinuously in the upper story. {62}

 [Illustration: Manchester]

{63}

 [Illustration: Beverley Minster]

Some twenty years later, stallwork was put up in the collegiate church ofManchester. On the north side of the choir is a curious shield with theinitials of Richard Beck, a Manchester merchant, by whom all the stalls onthat side were erected: the southern stalls were erected by Bishop Stanley,and at the west end of them is the shield of Stanley with the Stanleylegend of the eagle and child. At Manchester craftsman ambition had tosurpass Ripon and Nantwich. But the lower stages of Nantwich and Ripon wereunsurpassable; so they were copied, angelettes included. The string-courseis strengthened and improved by additional battlements; but undue emphasisis prevented by making it discontinuous. In the upper story, by way ofchange, there is a reversion to the single niche, flanked by windowtracery, of Lincoln and Chester; finally, originality is asserted bysurmounting the whole, in somewhat doubtful propriety, with a continuoustester, so that the canopies that cover the stalls are themselves coveredand protected. This tester has a horizontal cornice with brattishing aboveand cornice braces between pendant pieces below. To make room for this thespirelets so much in vogue are replaced, as at Nantwich, by canopies withhorizontal cresting--taking it altogether, a magnificent design, if onlythe Ripon stalls had not existed (62).

{64}

 [Illustration: Beverley Minster] [Illustration: Beverley Minster]

{65}

 [Illustration: Beverley Minster] [Illustration: Beverley Minster]

Then come the stalls of Beverley Minster, misericords of which areinscribed with the dates 1520 and 1524; the stalls are therefore about adozen years later than those of Manchester. They are modelled closely onthose of Manchester and Ripon. It is quite conceivable that some of thecarvers may have worked successively at Ripon (1500), Manchester (1508) andBeverley (1520). As at Ripon, the lower story is made predominant, thelittle angels being replaced, however, by human busts--no greatimprovement; not that they are not full of life and interest (27, 63). Thestring-course is that of Manchester. The upper story has single nichesflanked by window tracery, as at Manchester. The horizontal canopy ofManchester now remains over the return stalls only. On the whole it must beadmitted that these stalls mark no advance. A bit of original design indeedappears at one point, where low, heavy straight-lined gables are introducedquite out of harmony with the curving ogee arches (64).

{66}

 [Illustration: Durham]

Then comes the Dissolution; a long list of Tudor monarchs reign and passaway; Stuarts take their place; Civil War follows; at length at theRestoration of 1660 the Church comes to her own again, and John Cosinascends the episcopal throne of Durham. True to the Church of England andloyal to Gothic Architecture, he reverts to the consecrated form, andtabernacled stalls are reared once more--one of his many contributions tothe cathedral and diocese of Durham (22). Nor is the design an unworthyone; nay, rather it is a distinct improvement on that of Carlisle, Ripon,Manchester and Beverley; for by abolishing the string-course, he reducesthe design to the unity with which it started at Lincoln. Moreover, tallpinnacles had flanked the spirelets of Ely, Lincoln, Chester, Carlisle,Ripon and Beverley, so that really one could not see the wood for thetrees; these pinnacles are now omitted, and the spirelets get their fullvalue. Altogether a very fine design; and the little bits of Renaissancedetail which here and there creep in, as in the bishop's {67} magnificentfont cover,[30] only add to its charm (66). Other examples of John Cosin'stime are to be seen at Brancepeth where he was formerly rector from 1626 to1633; the stalls, screens and pulpit of that church are simply delightful(93). More of this work is to be seen in the chapel of the Bishop's palaceat Bishop's Auckland; in the church of his son-in-law at Sedgefield and atSherburn hospital. So Gothic in spirit is this work that it has been againand again ascribed to Elizabethan times, _e.g._, by Billings in his _Countyof Durham_. In spite of the coarseness of some of the detail and that hereand there a bit of Classical detail creeps in, it is most interesting andenjoyable; would that we had more of these delightful admixtures of Classicand Gothic forms; plentiful in Spain and France, they are rare with us.

 [Illustration: Dunblane]

The stalls in Dunblane cathedral are thought by Messrs Macgibbon andRoss[31] to have been put up in the time of Bishop James Chisholm(1486-1534). In that case they would be _c._ 1520. "The work is ratherrough in execution, not to be {68} compared with the more characteristicwoodwork of King's College, Aberdeen"; nevertheless it is very picturesqueand interesting. The introduction of the centaurs indicates Renaissanceinfluence; the foliage carving is a rather curious mixture of late Gothicand Classic forms, such as we find elsewhere in Scottish carved work ofthis period. The Scottish thistle is one of the chief motifs (67).

In the chapel of King's College, Aberdeen, is a considerable amount of fineoak carved work, by far the most extensive and best of its kind inScotland. The chapel itself, in some of its features, bears the characterof the parish church at Stirling and other Scottish works of the beginningof the sixteenth century. The carved stalls, monuments, and decorative workof the interior are of the same period, but may possibly have been broughtfrom a distance, or executed by foreign workmen engaged (like the Englishplumber) by the bishop. The panels are all of different design, and shew agreat deal of variety combined with a sufficiently uniform effect when thework is viewed as a whole. In some of them the details are based on floralforms--thistle, vine, oak, &c.--while the conventional French fleur-de-lisis also introduced.[32]

At this point arises the question how far our stallwork was influenced byforeign design. It may be stated at once with confidence that of the greatmajority of the stalls the design is as thoroughly English as the oak ofwhich they are built. We have seen that the flowing and ogee forms of theEly tracery were designed not later than 1338, which is at least sixtyyears earlier than any work of the sort in France. We were able to see howby gradual modifications of the Ely design the craftsmen were able toadvance slowly but assuredly to the stallwork of Lincoln, Chester,Nantwich, Carlisle, Ripon, Manchester, Beverley, Durham; the glorious chainof artistic success is complete; every link is there. But there are factson the other side which, at any rate at Melrose, are beyond dispute orcontroversy. In 1846 a document was communicated to the Society ofAntiquaries, London, from West Flanders, relating to a dispute at Brugesbetween William Carebis, a Scotch merchant, and John Crawfort, a monk ofMelrose, on the one hand, and Cornelius de Aeltre, citizen and master ofthe art of carpentry of Bruges, on the other hand. The latter hadcontracted to supply certain stalls and to erect them in the abbey churchof Melrose, after the fashion of the stalls of the choir of the abbeychurch of Dunis in Flanders, with carving similar to that existing in thechurch of Thosan near Bruges. The stipulated price had been paid, and themaster carpenter was called to account for delaying to complete the work;whereupon he pleaded various excuses, stating that the work had beenimpeded by popular commotions at Bruges, during which he had been desertedby his workmen and had suffered heavy losses. It was decided that Melroseabbey should bear the cost of its transport to the town of Sluys andembarkation there for Scotland, and should make some allowance to Corneliustowards his journey to Melrose; and that they should give him and his chiefcarver (_formiscissori_) a safe-conduct for their journey and return. Thisdocument was dated 7th October, 1441.[33] {69}

 [Illustration: Windsor]

{70}

No such wholesale example of foreign design occurs in England; neverthelessthere are two important instances in which Flemish design is to besuspected; viz., in the Royal chapels at Windsor and Westminster. Asregards the stalls in St George's chapel, Windsor, it is known that thetabernacled canopies were begun in 1477 and were completed in 1483; thusthey took six years to make (69).[34] The canopies are known to have beenmade in London; the carvers being Robert Ellis and John Filles, apparentlyEnglishmen. On the other hand the great Rood, with the statues of St Georgeand St Edward and others, was made by Diricke Vangrove and GilesVancastell, who are just as evidently Dutchmen; for four images the twoDutchmen were paid at the rate of 5s. per foot; for six canopies the twoEnglishmen received £40, say £480; _i.e._, about £80 of our money for eachcanopy. Now here we have Dutch and English carvers engaged together on whatwas practically one work: moreover the more artistic and difficult part ofthe work, the figure sculpture, is entrusted to the Dutchmen. It is to thelatter probably that the general lines of the design are due. The detail issufficiently English; not so the general design. For the Windsor stallworkis intermediate between that of Chester (_c._ 1390) and Carlisle (1433) onthe one hand, and Ripon (_c._ 1490) and Manchester (1508) on the other. Butit is not a development arising out of either of the earlier designs, norwas the stallwork of Ripon and Manchester in any way a development fromthat of Windsor. {71}

 [Illustration: Windsor]

{72} All the larger stallwork of the fifteenth century was, as we haveseen, designed in two stories, rising into spirelets and pinnacles; atWindsor the double story, the spirelet and the pinnacle are all alikelacking. It is true that the original canopies were designed quite as muchfor the Knights of the Garter as for the Windsor Canons, and in the case ofthe former the design had to be accommodated to provide supports for theknights' helmets, mantles and swords; nevertheless this might have beenaccomplished without utterly breaking away from current design. The Windsordesign, so far as English work goes, has no ancestry; its origin no doubtis to be found in the Netherlands. The Windsor stalls have been muchtampered with. As Hollar's engraving in Ashmole's _Institution of the Orderof the Garter_ (1672) shews, over the westernmost bay on either side of thechoir the canopies contained imagery and had a horizontal cresting; and allthe other canopies consisted alternately of towers and spirelets; theknights being seated under the towers and the canons under the spirelets;but since the enlargement of the Order in 1786 all the spirelets have beenconverted into towers (71). All these towers are surmounted by woodenbusts, of which the earliest go back to the time of Edward IV.; on the bustwere placed the knight's helmet, crest and mantlings, which hid the bustsfrom view; lower down, in front, hung his sword; banners were not addedtill a later period. At first the real sword and helm were put up; later,they were theatrical properties.

 [Illustration: Bishop Langton's Chapel]

In Winchester cathedral is stallwork of rare beauty in the Lady Chapel,which was built in the time of Bishop Courtenay, 1486-1492. In some of itsdetails it resembles the Windsor stalls, which were completed in 1483; itis therefore feasible that some of the Windsor carvers went on toWinchester (73). South of the Lady Chapel is the chantry chapel of BishopLangton, 1493-1500, where also the screen and coved panelling are of greatexcellence (72); there are no stalls. {73}

 [Illustration: Winchester Cathedral] [Illustration: Westminster Abbey]

{74}

Henry the Seventh's chapel at Westminster was built partly as a LadyChapel, partly to be the mausoleum of Henry VII. and his Queen, and ofHenry VI.[35] Here the canopies with tower-like form and single story andwith the absence of pinnacle are plainly reminiscent of those of Windsor,and as plainly distinct from current English design, as seen at Manchesterin 1508 and Beverley Minster in 1520; the Westminster and Manchestercanopies were being made together; but those of Westminster have noconnection with the grand Northern series of consecutive designs (131).Besides Windsor influence there may be direct influence from theNetherlands; for some of the misericords are evidently from the design of apainter or engraver, the subjects being too crowded to be properly carvedin wood in so limited a space. Mr J. Langton Barnard says,[36] "Whilelooking over some engravings on copper of Albert Durer, I came across onewhich strikingly resembled the third misericord in the upper row on thenorth side; the resemblance was extremely close, especially in thearrangement and folds of the woman's dress; this is stated by Bartsch inhis _Catalogue_ (vii. 103 and 93) to be one of his earliest plates. Anotherplate of Albert Durer closely resembles the corresponding misericord in thelower row on the south side, as regards the position of the limbs and thefolds of the drapery; while the seventh misericord of the lower row on thesouth side almost exactly resembles a plate by Israel van Meckenern, of twomonkeys and three young ones." These stalls formerly occupied only thethree western bays of the chapel; another bay was filled with stalls whenthe Order of the Bath was revived by King George the First; thecanopy-fronts for an additional bay on each side being got by sawing offcanopy-backs and putting them up as fronts. The tabernacle work is of therichest and most diversified character, varying in every canopy (73).

 * * * * * {75}

CHAPTER V

RENAISSANCE STALLWORK

Thus far the stallwork has been wholly of Gothic design, or nearly so. Wenow come to the great change of style, the reversion to the Classic art ofancient Rome, which goes by the name of the Renaissance. Of this the chiefrepresentatives left to us are the stalls of Christchurch, Hants; King'sCollege, Cambridge; and Cartmel, Lancashire. The stalls and misericords ofChristchurch, as we see them now, are a patchwork of portions of work ofseveral periods framed together at some more or less recent epoch; thereare at least two styles of Renaissance work, and three or more of Gothic.The earlier Renaissance work, which is seen in most of the misericords andon the stall backs is that of William Eyre who was Prior from 1502 to 1520(2). There are fifty-eight stalls; of the misericords twenty-six have beenstolen or destroyed. The early date of this work makes it of exceptionalimportance in the history of the introduction of Renaissance art intoEngland. One special feature of the work is the portrait panels. These alsooccur in a cupboard preserved in Louth church, Lincolnshire, where thepanels have what look very much like portraits of Henry VII. and his queen,Elizabeth of York. It goes by the name of the "Sudbury hutch" and was thegift of Thomas Sudbury, who was vicar from 1461 to 1504: it is therefore ofthe time of Henry VII. These "portrait cabinets" had a great vogue in thereign of Henry VIII., and throughout the sixteenth century. Then come threeimportant tombs by Torrigiano, executed between 1509 and 1518, that ofHenry VII. and his Queen and that of Margaret Beaufort at Westminster andthat of Dr Young in the Rolls chapel. Almost as early, if not quite so, isPrior Eyre's work at Christchurch. Then comes Cardinal Wolsey's work atHampton Court, 1515 to 1525; the beautiful Marney tomb at Layer Marney,Essex, 1523; the mortuary chests in the cathedral, and the screen work bothin the cathedral and in St Cross, Winchester, _c._ 1525; the chantry chapelof Prior Draper at Christchurch, 1529, and that of Lady Salisbury, whichmay be a year or two earlier; and the screen at Swine church, Yorkshire,dated 1531. Then follow Henry VIII.'s hall at Hampton Court, 1534; and thescreen at King's College, Cambridge, 1533.

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 [Illustration: Christchurch]

{77}

 [Illustration: Christchurch]

So that the Christchurch work stands very high on the list and deservesmuch more attention than it has received. The general outline of the stallsthemselves is Gothic, the chief divergency being in the supports of theelbow rests and seats. Among the shafts are examples of the honeycomb formwhich is almost the only bit of Renaissance detail in the canopies of theWestminster stalls. At the back of the stalls are very vigorous carvings ofclassical dragons, serpents, hounds and human faces (76). To these lastfanciful attributions have been made; _e.g._, one has been imagined torepresent Catharine of Arragon between Cardinal Wolsey and CardinalCampeggio (77). These portrait busts have a wide distribution; they occurin wood, stone and terra cotta. Noble examples are those in terra cotta atHampton Court, which were undoubtedly imported by Cardinal Wolsey directfrom Italy.[37] Others no doubt are the work of Italians resident inEngland in the first half of the sixteenth century, when Italian art andItalian literature were equally the fashion with the cognoscenti led byHenry VIII. and Wolsey; _e.g._, the fine bust of Sir Thomas Lovell byTorrigiano, now in Westminster Abbey.[38] These portrait busts have a widerange--from Essex westward to Somerset, Devon and Cornwall; _e.g._, NorthCadbury, Somerset; Lapford, Devon, and Talland, Cornwall; several alsooccur at Hemingborough, Yorkshire. The probability is that the Italianartists entered the kingdom at Southampton; and that a few found work atChristchurch and in the south-west, but that the main body proceededeastward to Winchester, Basing, London and Layer Marney; they have left onememorial at Oxford beneath a window at Christ Church.[39] {78}

 [Illustration: King's College, Cambridge]

{79}

Next come the famous screen and stalls of King's College, Cambridge--"thefinest woodwork this side of the Alps." Harmonious as is the general effectof the stallwork, it was executed at three different periods. The stallswere ordered to be made by Henry VI. in his will, but were not put up tillmuch later. About 1515 an estimate was obtained for 130 stalls, which itwas found would cost about £12,000 of our money, _i.e._, about £92 each. Onthe screen, which is part of the same work, are the arms, badge andinitials of Anne Boleyn, who was at the height of her influence between1531 and 1535; the stallwork may be ascribed to the same period, but as yetthe stalls had plain backs. In 1633 Mr Thomas Weaver presented the largecoats of arms which are seen on the backs of the stalls (78). The crestingwas made between 1675 and 1678 by Thomas Austin, following more or less thestyle of the work below.[40] The screen is more completely Italian intreatment than any other work of the time, all the moldings being Classic;it is practically certain that the general design and most of the work musthave been done by Italians. The design of screen and stalls alike is to beregarded as an isolated example, complete in itself. It did not grow out ofanything that went before it in England, nor did it develop into anythingelse in England afterwards.[41]

More Classical still in design--an entablature with architrave, frieze andcornice superseding the semicircular arches of the Cambridge stalls--is thesuperb woodwork at Cartmel, Lancashire. From the Dissolution up to 1620,the choir of Cartmel priory church was roofless; the canopies of the stallsmust have perished; the stalls themselves remain, bearing the mark of longexposure to the weather. In 1620 it is recorded[42] that George Preston ofHolker, who died in 1640, not only reroofed the chancel, "but decorated thequire and chancel with a profusion of curiously and elaborately carvedwoodwork" (80). {80}

 [Illustration: Cartmel]

{81}

 [Illustration: Cartmel]

{82}

Cartmel was a priory church of Austin Priors, with an income at theDissolution of £90, say £1,000. There are twenty-six stalls; above thedoorways are inscriptions in gold letters from the Psalms. The architraveis supported by shafts which have Corinthian capitals, round which cling indelightful fashion delicate tendrils and fruit of the vine. On the shaftsalso are emblems of the Passion; in the illustrations may be recognised thecross, the ladder, the buffet, the pillar of scourging, the hammer and thenails. At the back is delicate tracery work, reminding one of the Gothictracery of the screen of St Catharine's chapel in Carlisle cathedral. Thewhole design is full of grace and charm; above all in the delicate tendrilsof the vine coiling round the shafts; one's first thought is to class itwith the exquisite scrollwork of the churches of S. Maria dei Miracoli atBrescia and Venice, and with the work of the Italian artists in England inthe time of Henry VIII. For as a rule, says Mr Gotch,[43] "with the closeof the first half of the sixteenth century we come to the end of pronouncedItalian detail such as pervades the tiles at Laco*ck abbey and characterisesother isolated features in different parts of the country. The nature ofthe detail in the second half of the sixteenth century," and in theseventeenth century, "is different; it no longer comprises the daintycherubs, the elegant balusters" (_cf._ the King's College stalls) "vasesand candelabra, the buoyant dolphins and delicately modelled foliage whichare associated with Italian and French Renaissance work, but indulgesfreely in strapwork curled and interlaced, in fruit and foliage, incartouches and in caryatides, half human beings, half pedestals, such aswere the delight of the Dutchmen" who had superseded the Italian artists.In the Cartmel stalls the one feature which is pre-eminently Jacobean is tobe seen in the character of the busts in the frieze; if they are comparedwith those at Christchurch (77), they are seen at once to be of seventeenthand not of sixteenth century design. Setting those aside, the design ispurely that of the Early English Renaissance, as practised by Italianartists. It is one of the most remarkable examples of "survival" in designin the range of English art, and as beautiful as it is belated--a wholecentury behind the times. {83}

 [Illustration: St Paul's Cathedral]

{84}

In 1697 the choir of St Paul's cathedral was opened for public worship. Thestalls differ considerably in type from those of Pre-Reformation days, asit was necessary to provide seats for the Lord Mayor and Corporation ofLondon as well as closets at the back to accommodate the wives and familiesof the canons. By the removal of the western screen in the time of DeanMelvill, appointed 1856, the appearance of the choir has been completelychanged. The exquisite carvings of Grinling Gibbons, says Dean Milman,[44]are not merely admirable in themselves, but in perfect harmony with thecharacter of the architecture. He even goes so far as to say that theyrival, if they do not surpass, all mediæval works of their class in grace,variety and richness; and keep up an inimitable unison of the lines of thebuilding and the decoration. In the words of Horace Walpole, "there is noinstance of a man before Gibbons who gave to wood the loose and airylightness of flowers, and changed together the various productions of theelements with a fine disorder natural to each species." It is doubtfulwhether Grinling Gibbons was of Dutch or English birth. He was discoveredby Evelyn in a poor solitary thatched house near Sayes Court carving aCrucifixion after Tintoretto. In this piece more than a hundred figureswere introduced; "nor was there anything in nature so tender and delicateas the flowers and festoons about it; and yet the work was strong." Heasked Evelyn £100 for it. The frame, says Evelyn, was worth as much. Evelynintroduced "the incomparable young man" to the King and to Wren, and hisfortune was made. Malcolm in his _Londinium Redivivum_ calculates that thepayments made to Gibbons for his work in St Paul's amounted altogether to£1,337. 7s. 5d.[45]

Space fails to tell of many noble examples of eighteenth centurystallwork.[46] In spite of an enormous amount of destruction, _e.g._, bythe vandals in charge of Canterbury cathedral, much still remains andawaits the historian. A fine drawing of the stallwork put up in 1704 inCanterbury choir will be found in Dart's _Canterbury_. The throne, carvedby Grinling Gibbons, was given by Archbishop Tenison; the pulpit, two ofthe stalls and other fittings by Queen Mary II.;[47] all this has beenswept away, except some pieces worked into the return stalls, to make wayfor stalls of the usual brand of Victorian Gothic.

 * * * * * {85}

CHAPTER VI

STALLS IN PARISH CHURCHES

 [Illustration: Sall] [Illustration: Trunch]

Stalls are found, but rarely with canopies, in many parochial, as well asin monastic, collegiate and cathedral churches. In the latter of course theobject of them is obvious; they were intended to accommodate a large bodyof monks or canons with their vicars and the choristers. But they are foundsometimes in the churches of quite small parishes, _e.g._, Sall, Trunch,Ludham, Burlingham St Edmund's in Norfolk, Weston-in-Gordano, Somerset,Norton in Suffolk, Ivychurch[48] in Romney Marsh, where it is prettycertain that in most cases the church was served by a single parish priestmerely. At Ingham, a parish in the Norfolk Broads, there are ten stalls inthe chancel; at Stowlangtoft, Suffolk, there are six stalls; and so withnumerous others. How early parochial chancels had stalls is difficult tosay. No existing examples are earlier than the thirteenth century. But acurious fact about the growth of our parish churches, to {86} whichattention has not hitherto been directed, may throw some light on thesubject. In early Anglo-Saxon days the normal and most common type ofparish church was one which had an aisleless nave and chancel. In earlyNorman days also this was the most common type. In all the above churches,whether Anglo-Saxon or Norman, the chancel, whether rectangular or apsidal,was quite small. Comparatively few, however, of these chancels remainsmall. In the vast majority of cases they have been enlarged. Either theold chancel has been retained but has been lengthened, or it has beenbroadened as well as lengthened, thus producing an entirely new chancel. Inmost cases it happened that, in the long history of the church, aisles werethrown out afterwards, or transepts, that later the nave was lengthenedwestwards and was heightened to accommodate clerestory windows, and stilllater a western tower was added and perhaps a spire. But the enlargement ofthe chancel sometimes took place without any of the other alterations, andwhere that is so, _i.e._, where the church retains a comparatively smallnave, the enlarged chancel bulks up very lofty and spacious, seeminglyquite out of scale to the rest of the church: in some examples the chancelis actually loftier than the nave. A church with a chancel sodisproportionate strikes the attention at once as one demandingexplanation. Large numbers of such abnormally big chancels survive. In Kentand Sussex many of them are of the thirteenth century; _e.g._,Littlebourne; while over England one is struck with the very large numberof lofty and spacious chancels of the fourteenth century; _e.g._, Norbury,Derbyshire; Oulton, Suffolk. In numerous cases the enlargements of thechancel took place more than once. At Boston the church was rebuilt with afine chancel _c._ 1330; but by the end of the century even this vastchancel was judged inadequate, and it was extended still further to theeast.

{87}

 [Illustration: Hemingborough Church]

{88} What then is the explanation of this furore for enlargement ofchancels? In considering the answer, it must be borne in mind that,ritualistically, the English parish church was always tripartite;consisting of nave, choir and chancel. In churches of the Iffley type,_i.e._, with a central tower, it was also architecturally tripartite. Buteven in churches which architecturally were bipartite, _i.e._, whichconsisted merely of a nave and chancel, the chancel was divided into twoparts, choir and sanctuary, the distinction between them being marked by achange of level. Which part then was it that was found inadequate, thesanctuary or the choir? Not the former; it was not then cumbered with altarrails; the purpose they serve nowadays was served by the screen which everychurch possessed, guarding the entrance to the chancel; and the sanctuarywas quite large enough for the celebrant at the Mass, with as a rule asolitary assistant, the parish clerk. It must have been the choir that wastoo small for the seats which it was desired to place in it. We concludetherefore that seats were common even in small village churches as early asthe thirteenth century, if not before. Documentary evidence to that effectwe have not. But in later days there is definite evidence as to thepractice of putting stalls in the chancels of parish churches. InHemingborough church, Yorkshire, there remain stalls of graceful thirteenthcentury design (87). Now this church in the thirteenth century wasparochial; it did not become collegiate till 1426. A series of entries ofthe cost of choir stalls is preserved for the parish church of St Mary atHill in the City of London. In the year 1426 there was "paid to threecarpenters for the stalls of the quire, 20d." In the following year therewas paid "for the stalls of the quire" the large sum of £12 (= £150); itwould seem that it was about this time that a complete new set of stallswas put into the choir. In the same year, 1427, there was "paid for stallsin the quire, 16s. 6d."; and "for a quire stool, 7s. 10d." In 1501 apayment was made "for mending of desks in the quire"; in 1509 "for nailsand mending of a bench in the quire, 1d." In 1523 there was "paid for along desk for the quire, 3s."; in 1526 "for the stuff and making of adouble desk in the quire, 5s." Then, in Protestant days, there was "paidfor mending the desk and settles in the chancel, 2s." At this church thelower part of the bench was made to form a box or chest. {89}

 [Illustration: Hereford St Peter's]

Who then sat in these stalls? The common theory is that they were intendedfor the use of the rector or vicar and the parish clerk, and of any chantrypriests who might be attached to the church. This no doubt is true as faras it goes. At St Maurice, York, a complaint was made at the visitation in1416 to the effect that the desks in the choir, viz., those where theparish chaplain and the parish clerk were wont to sit, are unhandsome andin need of repair: "Dic*nt quod deski in choro, tam ex una parte quam exalia, ubi saltem capellanus parochialis et clericus parochialis sedere usisunt, nimis deformes et indigent reparacione."[49] To many churches also,but by no means to all, chantry endowments were made; _i.e._, money wasleft that masses might be said for ever for the repose of the soul of thedonor by a priest, other than the rector or vicar, specially appointed forthat purpose. It is commonly supposed that these chantry priests wereconcerned only with the special altars at which they ministered. But thatthis was not the case, at any rate universally, is apparent from the termsof the institution of the Willeby chantry in Halifax parish church. Thedeed is dated 10th June 1494. Amongst other regulations it contains theprovision that the chaplain is to attend in person in the choir of thechurch on every Sunday and Holy Day in his surplice, at matins, mass andvespers, and to take his part in the reading and chanting, as directed bythe vicar, and in accordance with the constitutions of the MetropolitanChurch. "Item volo et ordino quod predictus Tho. Gledhill, Capellanusmodernus, et omnes alii Capellani, ... temporibus futuris nominandi,singulis diebus dominicis et festivis personaliter sint presentes in choroejusdem Ecclesie temporibus matutinarum missarum et vesperarum, suissuppeliciis induti, et legant et psallent, prout Vicario ejusdem Ecclesiepro tempore existenti decenter et congrue videbitur expedire, ut inconstitutionibus Ecclesie Metropolitane proinde constitutis pleniusliquet." Assuming {90} then that the same rule applied also to theincumbents of the other chantries, there would be a regular body of clergyto take part in the choir offices.[50]

Instances might be multiplied to any extent of the obligation laid onchantry priests to attend and assist the rector or vicar in the services.Thus at Rothwell in 1494 the chantry priest attached to the altar of OurLady was not only required by the foundation deed to celebrate Mass andother service daily at this altar, but was directed to be in the high choirall festival days at matins, Mass, and evensong. In 1505 Margaret Blade,widow, endowed a chantry of Our Lady in Kildewick parish for a priest who,in addition to his special duties, was to help Divine service in the choirand to help the curate in time of necessity.[51] Sometimes quite aconsiderable number of chantry priests were attached to a parish church.When all chantry endowments were confiscated by Edward VI., the loss of theservices of the chantry priests was in many cases severely felt. AtNottingham indeed the parishioners of St Mary's made formal protest;stating that in their parish there were "1,400 houseling people and thatthe vicar there had no other priest to help but the two chantrypriests."[52] We may take it therefore that seats in the chancel wererequired not only for the parish priest and the parish clerk, but in somecases for chantry priests as well.

But the above explanation does not cover the whole ground. There are oftenmany more stalls than could be used as above. And in some churches therewere no chantry priests at all, and yet there are stalls. Who else thenoccupied seats in the chancel? Some of the stalls probably, usually but afew, may have been occupied by laymen even so early as the thirteenthcentury. {91}

 [Illustration: Stowlangtoft]

As regards the occupancy of seats in the chancel it is quite clear that ithas always been the wish of the Church that they should be reserved for theclergy and that no laymen should be admitted. It is equally clear that theChurch has never been able to carry out the injunction. In the TrullanCouncil of 683 or 692 it was laid down, "Nulli omnium liceat, qui quidemsit in laicorum numero, intra septa sacri altaris ingredi, nequaquam tamenab eo prohibita potestate et auctoritate imperiali, quandoquidem volueritCreatori dona offerre, ex antiquissima traditione"; _i.e._, "No layman mayenter the chancel, except the Emperor, who by venerable tradition isallowed to do so when he wishes to present offerings to his Maker." Butthis does not explicitly allow the Emperor to sit down in the chancel. Andeven this much was objected to by many; for a gloss follows: "Nemo liceatlaico intra, &c." ... "Adulatione et timore victi, per gravem erroremconcedunt imperatori, quod magna cum laude sanctorum patrum AmbrosiusTheodosio negavit"; _i.e._, "The permission given to the Emperor was givenunder the influence of adulation and timidity, and the action of St Ambrosein refusing it to the Emperor Theodosius was greatly applauded by theFathers." But it was a perilous thing to exclude emperors, and what wasconceded to emperors was claimed by princes, and what was conceded toprinces was claimed by and had to be conceded to the nobility generally. Soin Scotland in 1225 by an episcopal order the King and his nobles also wereallowed to stand and to sit in the chancel: "Ne laici secus altare, quumsacra mysteria celebrantur, stare vel sedere inter clericos presumant,excepto domino rege et majoribus regni, quibus propter suam excellentiam inhac parte duximus referendum." And if the nobles, then certainly the patronof the living could not be excluded from a parochial chancel. So in thediocese of Worcester in 1240 a canon was agreed to that patrons as well ashigh personages might stand in the chancel: "nec laici stent in Cancellisdum celebrantur divina; salva tamen reverentia patronorum et sublimiumpersonarum"; in Lincoln diocese also Bishop Grosstête in 1240 restricts thepermission to the patron. Again in 1255 in Lincoln diocese the patron orany other "venerable" person was allowed to sit and stand in the chancel.Archbishop Greenfield of York (1304-1315) found it necessary to make a ruleagainst laymen intruding into the choir during service. So also at Ely,Simon Langham in 1364 wrote: "Lay people are not to stand or sit amongstthe clerks in the chancel during the celebration of divine service, unless{92} it be done to shew respect or for some other reasonable and obviousreason; but this is allowed for the patrons of churches only."[53] Thenwhat had been claimed successfully by those of noble birth, and by patronsin particular, was claimed with equal success by any good Churchman ofconsideration and wealth, especially if he were a benefactor of the church.For in the fourteenth century Alan de Alnewyk of York, goldsmith, willsthat his body be buried _in the quire_ of St Michael Belfry near the place_where I used to sit_ ("ubi sedere solebam"). Another century later, RobertConstable of Bossall, leaves this direction in 1454: "First, I devise mysoul to God Almighty and his mother Blessed Saint Mary and to Saint Botolphand to the holy court of heaven; and my body to be buried in the quireafore the place _where my seat is_."[54] In 1511 Robert Fabyan, thechronicler, citizen and draper of London, devises as follows: "I will thatmy corps be buried between my pew and the high altar, _within the quire_ ofthe church of Allhallows, Theydon Gardon, Essex." Finally, at Yatton,Somerset, in 1529, 2s. was "paid for a sege in ye chaunsell."[55] It is tobe remembered moreover that though it may have been unusual for laymen tohave seats in the chancel, yet it was by no means uncommon for them tostand or kneel there; there are enough representations of laymen sostanding to establish that point satisfactorily: they are shewn standing orkneeling, sometimes with lighted tapers in their hands. At a St Martin'smass in France in the fourteenth century,[56] two women are shewn near thealtar steps, one standing and attending to her duties, the otherinattentive and seriously distracting the attention of an acolyte kneelingnear. We know definitely that in Salisbury cathedral laymen were allowed tobe present in the sanctuary before the Sunday procession; for after thehallowing of the water it was ordered that the priest should asperge thelaity in the presbytery as well as the clergy in the choir. "Postaspersionem clericorum laicos in presbiterio hinc inde stantesaspergat."[57] At Salisbury the Sunday procession was marshalled in theample space between the choir and the high altar, which space the laityentered in order to follow the clerks in the procession. {93}

 [Illustration: Brancepeth]

For women it was more difficult to get admission to the chancel. Traditionand usage were against them. As early as A.D. 367 the Council of Laodiceapassed a canon that women ought not to come near the altar or enter theapartment where the altar stands. In the ninth century a canon was passedat Mantes that women must not approach the altar or act as "server" to thecelebrant or stand in the chancel. Among the canons of the time of KingEdgar is one: "Docemus ut altari mulier non appropinquet dum Missacelebratur"; "a woman must not come near the altar at Mass." In laying downregulations for the services in Ripon Minster Archbishop Greenfield says,"We permit no women at all, religious or secular, unless great ladies orladies of high rank or others of approved honour and piety, to sit or standin a stall or elsewhere in the choir while the divine offices are beingcelebrated." "Nullas omnino mulieres, religiosas vel seculares, nec laicosnisi magnas aut nobiles {94} personas aut alias quarum sit honestas etdevocio satis nota, in stallo vel alibi in choro inter ministros ecclesiaestare vel sedere dum divina celebrantur officia permittimus."[58] The storytold about Sir Thomas More shews that while he himself sat in the chancel,Lady More sat in the nave. "During his high Chancellorship one of hisgentlemen, when service at the church was done, ordinarily used to come tomy Lady his wife's pew-door and say unto her 'Madame, my Lord is gone.' Butthe next holy day after the surrender of his office of Lord Chancellor, andthe departure of his gentlemen from him, he came unto my Lady his wife'spew himself, and, making a low courtesy, said unto her, 'Madam, my Lord isgone.' But she, thinking this at first to be but one of his jokes, waslittle moved, till he told her sadly he had given up the Great Seal." Andmany other good Churchmen at all times have retained the ancient usage ofthe exclusion of women from the stalls in the chancel. At Great Burstead,in Essex, in 1661, an applicant was authorised to build a pew at theentrance to the chancel for the use of himself and sons and companions andfriends of the male sex; but to build another in the nave for his wife andher daughters and companions and friends of the female sex. King Charles I.in 1625 wrote, "For mine own particular opinion I do not think ... thatWomen should be allowed to sit in the chancel, which was instituted forClerks"; and in 1633, when he visited Durham cathedral, the choir wascleared of all the seats occupied by the Mayor and Corporation and thewives of the Dean and Prebendaries and other "women of quality," and hisMajesty gave orders that they should never again be erected, "that so theQuire may ever remain in its ancient beauty." Even to this day in somecathedrals it is the usage to allow women to sit only in the lower desks ofthe choir and not in the stalls above. Nevertheless in plenty of instancesthe pertinacity of women prevailed; and where the husband sat in thechancel, there the wife insisted on sitting beside him. Thus in a suitinstituted by Lady Wyche in 1468, the lady put it on record that she had aseat in the chancel: "jeo aye un lieu de seer en le chauncel." In 1468 twoladies had seats in the chancel of Rotherham church; for the master of thegrammar school willed that he be buried in south chancel[59] near the stallin which the wife of the Bailiff of Rotherham and the testator's wife sit.In 1553 a new pew was made for Sir Arthur D'Arcy and his wife at StBotolph, Aldgate: "Paid to Mattram, carpenter, for three elm {95} boardsfor the two new pews in the quire where Sir Arthur Darsey and his wife areset ... ijs. viijd." The same parish in 1587 gave Master Dove permission to"build a pew for himself, another for his wife to sit in, being in thechancel." Therefore we come to the conclusion that at any rate from thethirteenth century onward more and more seats were provided in the chancelfor lay folk. Where, as in the parish church of Boston, the stalls are verynumerous--at Boston there are sixty-four--it is likely that a considerablenumber of them were appropriated to various important gilds connected withthe church.

But there is another purpose which parochial stalls subserved, and that isthe most important of all: viz., to accommodate a surpliced choir. Theintroduction of surpliced choirs into chancels in modern days was aninnovation at first deeply resented, and seems to have been usually made inignorance of the existence of mediæval precedent. Precedent there is,however, in abundance. England was a merry, tuneful land before theReformation, and nowhere more than in the churches. The musical part of theservice grew more and more ornate, especially in the last years immediatelypreceding the Dissolution; the parishes--village and town parishesalike--delighted in "the cheerful noise of organs and fiddles and anthems,"and spent on music a very large part of the church income. The early yearsof the sixteenth century were a glorious time for church music; theparishioners loved it and would have it, and were willing to pay for it; itwas not forced on them from above; it was the people and the people'schurchwardens who would have it. What a joyful sound we should hear fromthe church doors if we could enter once more an English church of thesixteenth century and hear the surpliced men and boys a singing in thechoir, accompanied by organs and citterns and fiddles and crowdes anddulcimers and all instruments of music in the rood loft, with perhaps ananthem or a solo on high festival days from distinguished vocalists of theneighbouring villages; those were happy times. Take the churchwardens'accounts of St Mary at Hill, London.[60] In this church in 1523 there was"paid 15d. for 6 round mats of wicker for the clerks." If we assume sixmore for the boys, we get a regular choir of six men and six boys. Butbesides these an extra choir of choirmen and boys was engaged for specialdays. In 1527 there was "paid 9d. at the Sun tavern for the drinking of MrColmas and others of the King's chapel {96} that had sung in the church ofSt Mary at Hill." In 1553 there was "paid 16d. to the gentlemen of theQueen's chapel for singing a mass at St Mary at Hill." Again, in 1527 therewas "paid 7s. for bread, ale and wine for the quire, and for strangers atdivers feasts in the year past"; these "strangers" would probably besingers hired from other churches. The above entry shews that the choir waspaid in kind as well as in money. The choirmen received quite handsomesalaries. In 1524 Morres, the bass, was receiving from the parish 20 noblesa year. John Hobbes was the most expensive member of the choir. In 1556there was paid to John Hobbes 56s. 8d., being one quarter's wages, for hisservices in the choir. This choirman therefore had a salary of £11. 6s. 8d.per annum, which would be equivalent to about £113 of our money. Sir JohnParkyns, a bass, received a quarterly salary of 15s. 8d. "for the help thequire when Hobbes was dead, and to have 8d. a day every holy day andSunday." On the other hand there was "paid 12s. to Mr Hilton, priest, forthree quarters of a year, for keeping daily service in the quire in 1528";this was at the rate of 16s. per annum; this compares remarkably with JohnHobbes' salary of £11. 6s. 8d. per annum; even allowing for the fact thatMr Hilton had other sources of revenue, we cannot but infer that priestswere cheap and good singers dear in the sixteenth century. The parisheswere quite willing to pay for good music. At Braunton, Devon, _c._ 1580,_i.e._, after the Reformation, the churchwardens were still paying four orfive expensive choirmen, as well as singing boys; the highest salary for achoirman was 26s. 8d.; say £13. 6s. 8d. per annum; the choir in thisvillage church could not have cost the parish less than £100 per annum ofour money. In all the choirs there seem to have been "singing boys" as wellas men. We hear in 1477 of four choristers being brought over to St Mary atHill for a special service, for which they received the modest sum of 1d.each. At this church it was finally arranged to have a permanent choir, andwhat we should call a choir school was established, with John Norfolk, theorganist, at the head of it to train the boys: for there "was paid formaking clean of a chamber in the Abbot's Inn to be a school for Norfolk'schildren." The same year "Mr parson gave the boys a playing week to makemerry," and the churchwardens kindly presented the boys and choirmen with3s. 4d. to spend on their holiday. Next year there was again a payment of3s. 4d. "in the playing week after Christmas to disport them." Both theboys and the men wore surplices, bought at the expense of the parish. In1496 there were at St Mary at Hill "8 surplices for the quire, of which{97} 2 have no sleeves; and 7 rochets for children, and 6 albs forchildren." In 1499 there was "paid 12d. for the making of 6 rochets forchildren that were in the quire." At St Nicholas', Bristol, in 1521 therewas paid "1d. for making a child's surplice belonging to the quire"; and in1542 iiis. viid. for material "to make 2 lads' surplices." An inventory ofHuntingfield church, Suffolk, shews that the church possessed "viirochettys ffor men and vii for chyldern," and that the material of therochets cost 6d. each; it would seem that this Suffolk village had sevenmen and seven boys in the church choir. At St Mary at Hill there was paidin 1523 "for making 12 surplices for men at 6d. each, 6s.; and for 12surplices for children at 5d. each, 5s."; this was a rich city parish, andcould afford to have a pair for each choir man and boy, one to be in use,the other at the wash. Then music had to be paid for. In the same church in1523 there was paid "for 4 hymnals and a processioner, noted, for theclerks in the quire, 6s. 8d."; in the same year there was paid "for twoquires of paper to prick songs in, 8d." In 1555 at St Mary the Great,Cambridge, there was "paid 3s. 4d. for the copy of the service in Englishset out by note; and 1s. 4d. for writing and noting part of it to sing onboth sides of the quire"; _i.e._, they sang antiphonally. There arenumerous entries as to the cost of the organ and of the constant repairswhich it required. Lastly, there was the organist's salary, which if it wasanything like the sum received by John Hobbes, would be a heavy item. Aneminent organist like John Norfolk, who was in charge of a choir school,would expect and no doubt get a large salary. In village churches, however,the boys would be trained, sometimes by a chantry priest if he was understatutory obligation to do so, more often by the parish clerk. The latterwas a permanent official with a freehold, as he is still, and a person ofmuch importance and dignity. Before the Reformation, in addition to servingat the daily Mass in a village church, carrying holy water and "blessedbread" round the parish, and many other functions, he was more especiallyin charge of the musical part of the services. He was expected to sing orchant himself, especially the psalms; he had to read the epistles; and, atany rate in the sixteenth century, he had to train the choir boys. It wasordered at Faversham in 1506 that "the clerks, or one of them, so much asin them is, shall endeavour themselves to teach children to read and singin the quire." And at St Giles', Reading, in 1544 there was a payment of12s. "to Whitborne the clerk towards his wages, and he to be bound to teach2 children for the quire."

{98}

 [Illustration: Hambleton]

Beside the professional choirmen and the parish clerks there were sometimesamateurs also giving help. Sir Thomas More used to sing in Chelsea churchlike any parish clerk. "God's body," said the Duke of Norfolk, coming on atime to Chelsea and finding him in Chelsea church, singing at Mass in thechoir, "God's body, my Lord Chancellor, what turned parish clerk?" Putthese items together--the wages of choirmen and boys, and now and then ofextra help, the making, mending and washing of surplices, the cost ofmusic, the salaries of the organist and parish clerk and the cost of thechoir school, and it will be seen that the services of a large town churchmust have been, musically, on quite a grand scale; it is equally plain thatthe love of church music and the willingness to pay for it were equallygreat in the villages. It is not possible here to go further into thismatter of the church music. It may be said briefly, however, that the plainchant of the Divine Office and of the Mass would be sung in the chancel,and that for this the permanent village choir of men and boys wouldsuffice. Every parish that could afford it seems to have had a rood loftand an organ in it. But the organ would not be used to accompany the plainsong, but for what we call "voluntaries" in the various intervals of theMass and other services. The {99} organ again would be employed when therewas singing of "motets," _i.e._, anthems, whether the singers were in thechoir or the rood loft. On great days when minstrels playing all manner ofinstruments were got together to help out the organ, they would no doubt beplaced in the rood loft, with any extra vocalists for whom place could notbe found in the choir below.

 [Illustration: Chaddesden]

Summing up, we may say that in a parochial chancel seats were required (1)for the parish priest, the parish clerk and any chaplains or chantrypriests; (2) for the patron and a few of the leading churchfolk of thevillage; (3) for a choir of men and boys which was occasionally enlarged bychoirmen and choristers borrowed from neighbouring churches. Altogetherquite a considerable number of seats would be required; and we need not besurprised that there are so many stalls in small village churches, butrather that they are not more; no doubt, however, additional forms orbenches would be introduced on days of great festival.

Not every parish church could afford to have a set of stalls made,cathedral fashion, for its chancel. In many cases probably the seats werebut benches or settles; and the naked, desolate {100} look of many spaciouschancels is no doubt due to the removal of these seats. Desks, or as theywere Latinised "deski," there must have been, at least one at each side, onwhich to place the anthem book, processioner and other music. We hear of adouble desk at St Mary at Hill; but only the richest parishes seem to haveprovided desks for the choir boys as well as for the men. In poor parishesthe men had not armed stalls, but merely a bench to sit on.[61] The boyssometimes had a bench; sometimes, as at Stowlangtoft, Suffolk (91), thebench was framed into the desk behind. At the back of the choirmen's seats,there might be bare wall; or it might be panelled, as at Sall, Norfolk(85), or arcaded, as at Chichester Cathedral (36). In richer examples theremight be above the panelling a coved cornice, as at Stowlangtoft andBalsham, Cambridge (3). A still more sumptuous design was to erect ahorizontal canopy above the stalls, as at St Peter's (89) and All Saints'(45), Hereford, and Brancepeth, John Cosin's church, Durham (93). Thereturn stalls, facing east, would be those of the parish priest and hisclerical helpers, and were often more spacious and lofty than the rest, andbacked on to the screen, as at Chaddesden, Derbyshire (99), and Trunch,Norfolk (85).

The workmanship of the best stalls is quite first rate. At All Saints',Hereford, the timber of the stalls is "good sound English oak, all eithercleft or cut in the quarter, proving that the trees were converted into thesmallest possible sizes before being sawn from either end, the very roughsaw-kerfs meeting at an angle in the centre of the board."[62] The stallsfrequently stand on stone plinths, pierced for ventilation; _e.g._, at Salland Trunch (85).

 * * * * * {101}

PART II

CHAPTER VII

BISHOPS' THRONES

In the next chapter we deal with movable chairs and thrones, descendantsmore or less of the "_sella curulis_" and the "_sella gestatoria_." Moreimportant still are the fixed thrones of Early Christian days. These werenot of wood or ivory, but of masonry, usually marble. In shape they werejust high-backed chairs of marble. Now countless numbers of such marblechairs or stalls were in use in the theatres, thermæ and amphitheatres ofPagan Rome; the thermæ of Caracalla alone possessed 600 such marble stalls.Doubtless many a bishop's throne, like those at St John Lateran, St Clementand Cosmedin, Rome, was actually taken from one of the Roman thermæ.Similar bishops' chairs, cut out of the solid rock, occur in the catacombsof Rome.

The position of the fixed marble throne of an Early Christian bishop washigh up in the centre of the back wall of the apse of the church.

In Dalmatia and Istria several thrones retain their original position. AtParenzo there remains the semicircle of marble seats for the clergy withthe episcopal throne in the centre; a work of the first half of the sixthcentury. At Aquileia, in the centre of the east end, is the Patriarch'sthrone of veined white marble, inlaid with serpentine; it is made up ofportions of an older throne of genuine Byzantine work. At Grado the marblethrone at the east end of the church seems to have been made up in theninth century; it is surmounted by a stone tester. At Zara in the sameposition is another marble chair, raised on five steps. At Trau the benchof the clergy remains, but the bishop's throne has been destroyed. AtOssero also is a marble throne made up of fragments of older work.[63] Inthe apse of the twelfth century church of S. Stefano, Bologna, is abishop's throne ten steps above the choir. Another remains _in situ_ inVaison cathedral, Provence. Another episcopal chair of marble is now placedon the north side of the sanctuary of Avignon cathedral; on it are carvedthe emblems of the Evangelists (104). {102}

 [Illustration: Exeter]

{103}

 [Illustration: Exeter]

{104}

In the Victoria and Albert Museum is a throne, painted and gilded, dated1779, from a church in Cyprus. In Norwich cathedral in the centre of theapse wall of the presbytery there are the fragments of the original stoneseat built for the use of the bishop, and on the pavement and adjoiningpiers there are traces of the steps by which his throne was reached. WhenBlomfield wrote his _History of Norfolk_, 1739-1775, the steps of thethrone had not been disturbed; "the ancient bishop's throne ascended bythree steps," and when built, before a rood screen was erected, the bishophad an uninterrupted view down the whole church to the west end of thenave.[64]

 [Illustration: Avignon]

In Canterbury cathedral is a stone chair, which as at Norwich wasoriginally at the back of the High altar; it was removed from that positionby Archbishop Howley _c._ 1840, but has recently been replaced; it consistsof three blocks of Purbeck marble (105). The chronicler Eadmer, writing ofthe Pre-Conquest cathedral burnt down in 1067, says that "the pontificalchair in it was constructed with handsome workmanship and of large stonesand cement." The description would apply very well to the present chair:but the monk Gervase states that in Lanfranc's cathedral, finished in 1077,"the patriarchal seat, on which the archbishops were wont to sit during thesolemnities of the Mass, until the consecration of the Sacrament, was of asingle stone." It would seem therefore that the Anglo-Saxon chair perishedin the fire of 1067, and that its successor experienced the same fate in1174. The probability is therefore that the present chair was made betweenthe fire of 1174 and the consecration of 1184. A decisive argument againsta Pre-Conquest date is the fact that the throne is made of Purbeckmarble--for this material seems not to have come into use till after themiddle of the twelfth century in the Norman house at Christchurch on theAvon, in St Cross', Winchester, and in William of Sens' work at Canterbury.{105}

 [Illustration: Canterbury]

The position of the pontifical throne at Canterbury has varied at differentperiods. Eadmer states that the cathedral burnt down in 1067 was orientatedto the east, where was the presbytery containing the High altar. But at thewest end of the church was the altar of Our Lady, and behind this altar wasthe throne adjoining the west wall. This unusual position is onlyexplicable by the assumption that the first cathedral at Canterbury wasorientated to the west, and that the site occupied in 1067 by the altar ofOur Lady was originally that of the High altar. The western position sopostulated for the High altar and the throne was originally that of most ofthe Early Christian basilicas at Rome, in particular the ancient basilicaof St Peter. At a later period the orientation was often reversed, _e.g._,in St Paul _extra muros_, Rome; what happened in this latter church seemsalso to have happened in Anglo-Saxon times at Canterbury. A similar changehas occurred in the French cathedral of Nevers; where, however, though inGothic days a presbytery and High altar were constructed at the east end ofthe church, the early {106} Romanesque presbytery, crypt, and two bays ofthe nave have been allowed to remain to this day.

 [Illustration: Beverley Minster]

What looks like a survival of the marble chair of the bishop is to be seenin the frithstols of Hexham and Beverley (106). These also are of masonry,and are so similar in design to the ancient marble thrones that one istempted to speculate that the original usage of sanctuary was for theoffender to fly to and occupy the actual throne of the bishop orarchbishop.

As has been said, in the Early Christian churches both the altar and theseats of the bishop and his clergy were usually at the west end of thechurch to the west of the High altar, so that the clergy faced towards theeast, while the congregation faced towards the west. But early examplesoccur of churches with the modern orientation. When this was the case, thecongregation faced east; and where the ancient position of the throne andbenches was retained, the clergy were left in an anomalous position facingwest. This led, first to the clergy, then the bishop, migrating elsewhere.The higher clergy took up their position in the return stalls of the choir,facing east; the lower clergy occupied stalls north and south of the choir.As for the bishop, he could not seat himself as before, facing the altar,for his throne would have blocked the entrance into the presbytery. Hetherefore set up his throne on the south side of the choir, at the easternend of the southern range of stalls. And this is where we find him inGothic days. There is one chief exception. In cathedrals served by monks,the bishop was the titular abbot of the house, though the superintendenceof the monastery had necessarily to be left mainly in the hands of theprior; and so to this day in some churches the bishop has no throne, butoccupies the ancient abbot's stall--at Ely the stall of the Benedictineabbot, at Carlisle the stall of the Augustinian abbot.

{107}

 [Illustration: Durham]

The change of position from the back of the High altar to the front of itwas a complete break with tradition. Equally complete was the break indesign. In the design of the Gothic throne there is no reminiscencewhatever of the marble chairs of the Early Christian basilicas and thePagan Thermæ. The Gothic thrones are but glorified versions of such stallsand spirelet-tabernacles as those of Lincoln; they are spacious stalls,sometimes, as at St David's, big enough to hold a bishop and two chaplains,and crowned with a spire of open woodwork. The earliest and grandest isthat of Exeter cathedral; the Fabric Rolls shew that in 1312 during theepiscopate of Bishop Stapledon there was paid "for timber for the bishop'sseat £6. 12s. 8½d." The oak was kept four years before it was used. Then £4was paid to Robert de Galmeton "for making the bishop's seat by contract."There was also a charge of 30s. for {108} painting, and there must havebeen one for carving the statues in the canopy. The whole cost would beabout £13; say £200 in our money; a sum surprisingly small for work of suchmagnitude and delicate detail. The throne was evidently intended to have achair placed under it, and probably seats for the bishop's chaplains to theright and left. It is 57 feet high; at present its niches look somewhatunsubstantial and meagre; but that is because all the niches were tenantedwith statues, and all have disappeared. The carved foliage is ofexceptional excellence, and the corners of the pinnacles are occupied withsmall heads of oxen, sheep, dogs, pigs, monkeys and other animals (102).

 [Illustration: St David's]

{109}

 [Illustration: St David's]

{110} Not much later is the throne in Hereford cathedral. That at Wells isfifteenth century work, and by a pretty fancy of the "restorers" itstracery is filled with modern plate glass, and the door is a solid swingingstone! That at St David's is nearly 30 feet high. Of the throne erected byBishop Gower _c._ 1342 there remains _in situ_ only the low partitionsurrounding it; the present throne was probably put up by Bishop Morganbetween 1496 and 1504 (109).[65]

The throne at Durham is of masonry, and in two parts of different dates.The lower portion contains an altar tomb surmounted by a recumbent effigyof the bishop in richly worked robes beneath a rich lierne vault. No doubtBishop Hatfield as usual put this up during his lifetime; he was bishopfrom 1345 to 1381. This lower part is an exquisite example of the design invogue before the advent of the Black Death of 1349-50. On the tomb is thepulpit, which bears unmistakable marks of the change of style which becamegeneral after 1350. The drawing shews the throne as it was in 1843 (107).

 * * * * * {111}

CHAPTER VIII

CHAIRS IN CHURCHES

Hardly anything in a cathedral has so venerable a history as the throne andchair of the Bishop, of wood or ivory. The origin of this type of Bishop'schair goes back to Pagan Rome. There the greater officials had two officialchairs, both portable; one, the "_sella curulis_" in which they sat whileadministering justice; the other, the "_sella gestatoria_" in which theywere carried in procession. The "_sella curulis_" was a folding chair withcrossed legs like the chair of Dagobert in the Hotel Cluny, Paris: chairsof this form are still in use in many Continental cathedrals.

The "_sella gestatoria_" was a kind of sedan chair, shaped like a settle;with high back and usually without arms; it was provided with rings throughwhich were passed staves when it was borne in procession. Similar is thePope's chair in St Peter's, Rome, last shewn in 1867 (112). It is said tohave belonged to the Senator Pudens and to have been used by St Peter.Whether that be so or not, it is undoubtedly very ancient, and its legs maybe of the Apostolic age; they are of yellow oak, worm-eaten, and chipped bypilgrims who carried away bits as relics; the seat and back are of acaciawood and are of a later period. This back is ornamented with ivory panelscarved to represent the Labours of Hercules; the panels are probably of theninth century, for among the decorations is a bust with a crown bearing_fleurs de lis_, and what seems to be a portrait of Charles the Bald.[66]Very similar is the chair in which St Silvester is represented as seated inthe dome of the apse of St John Lateran, where the mosaics are those of1291, copied probably from the original ones executed in 428. Similarchairs also appear in the mosaics of Sta. Pudentiana and other Romanbasilicas, and in those of Santa Sophia, Constantinople. {112}

 [Illustration: Pope's Chair]

{113}

In the Archbishop's chapel at Ravenna is preserved a chair made forMaximian who was Archbishop of Ravenna from 546 to 556. It is in woodentirely covered with plaques of ivory, arranged in panels, with Scripturalsubjects--among others the story of Joseph--and figures of saints richlycarved in high relief. The plaques have borders with foliated ornaments,birds and animals, flowers and fruit, filling the spandrels.

 [Illustration: Pope's Chair]

At Lincoln is a wooden chair, which appears to be _c._ 1300; it hasrecently been placed in the Chapter House and is now used by the bishop atdiocesan synods (114). It is possible that since several Parliaments met atLincoln, between 1265 and 1327, that this may be the royal chair: it maywell have been used also at the great trial of the Knights Templars, whichwas held in the Chapter House in 1310. It is only original up to the levelof the arms; the lions, the back and the canopy are modern. {114}

 [Illustration: Lincoln] [Illustration: Hereford Cathedral]

{115} In Hereford cathedral is an ancient wooden chair, once coloured inred and gold; it is composed of fifty-three pieces; not counting the seatof two boards and the two circular heads in front; it has been variouslyascribed to the twelfth or fourteenth century; but no doubt is Jacobean,belonging to the same class of chairs as those enumerated in the followingparagraph (114).[67] At Stanford Bishop church, Hereford, is a rude chairor settle, of oak without nails. It is said to have been traditionallycalled "Old Horstin's chair," and therefore has been supposed, veryimprobably, to be the identical chair seated on which St Augustine receivedthe British bishops in Herefordshire _c._ 600 A.D., greatly exciting theire of the irascible Celts by not rising from his seat to receive them. Inthe Canterbury Museum Dr Cox has recently deposited a mediæval chairbelieved to be of great antiquity.[68]

 [Illustration: Wells] [Illustration: Wells]

A few examples remain of what are supposed to have been abbots' chairs. Inthe Bishop's Palace at Wells is preserved a chair of remarkable type, saidto have been used by the Abbot {116} of Glastonbury. In the College,Manchester, is or was an ancient chair of the same baluster shape; and avery similar one formerly was to be seen in Agecroft Hall, Manchester. Inthe cottage at Zaandam, Holland, is a baluster chair, formerly used byPeter the Great. Another chair of this type, but of simpler form, is thatonce used by John Bunyan, and now preserved, together with his pulpit, inthe meeting house of the Independent Congregation at Bedford. In theVictoria and Albert Museum is an arm-chair with balusters of turned ash.All these chairs are of seventeenth century date; no abbot of Glastonburycan have sat in the chair in the Bishop's Palace at Wells (115, on theleft).

 [Illustration: Dunmow] [Illustration: Winchfield]

A chair from Glastonbury, bearing an inscription, and in date _c._ 1530, isnow in the chapel of the Bishop's Palace at Wells; modern copies of it maybe seen in hundreds of churches. It is inscribed _Monachus Glastonie_ and_Johannes Arthurus_; a similar chair was formerly in Southwick Priory,Hampshire (115). An abbot's chair, reputed to have belonged originally toPeterborough cathedral, stands in the south chapel of Connington church,Hunts, where it is said to have been brought from the collegiate church ofFotheringhay, and is said to have been the last chair in which Mary, Queenof Scots, sat previous to her execution. From Little Dunmow priory came thechair now in Great Dunmow church, Essex; its trefoiled arcading shews thatit was made in the thirteenth century. In it, up to 1907, were chaired themarried couple "who had not repented them, sleeping or waking, of theirmarriage in a year and a day." The first recorded claim for thehappy-marriage prize was made at the Priory in 1445 (116). {117}

 [Illustration: Coventry]

{118}

 [Illustration: Bishop's Cannings]

{119}

A magnificent and well-preserved seat is to be seen in St Mary's Hall,Coventry, and is assigned to the middle of the fifteenth century: it is ofoak. From the mortices at one end and the discontinuance of the lowerpattern it would seem to have been attached to a set of stalls, and to havebelonged therefore originally to some church or chapel (117).[69]

 [Illustration: Jarrow] [Illustration: Beeston Regis]

In Bishop's Cannings church, Wiltshire, is a remarkable seat believed to bea "carrel," or desk and seat, such as used to be employed by monks when atstudy in their cloister; it may have been brought from some monastic house."It consists of an upright panel, with some fifteenth century moldings atthe {120} top and sides; against this panel is constructed a seat, facingsideways, with a flooring, a back the ordinary height of a pew, a doorfacing the panel, and a sloping desk facing the seat." With thisdescription may be compared that of the monastic carrels given in the_Rites of Durham_;

 "In the north side of the cloister from the Corner over against the Church Door to the corner over against the Dorter door was all finely glazed from the height to the sole within a little of the ground into the cloister garth, and in every window three pews or carrels where every one of the old monks had his Carrel, several by himself, that when they had dined they did resort to that place of cloister, and there studied upon their books, every one in his carrel, all the afternoon unto evensong time; this was their exercise every day. All their pews or Carrels was all finely wainscotted and very close, all but the forepart, which had carved work that gave light in at the carrel doors of wain scot. And in every Carrel was a desk to lie their books on; and the Carrels was no greater than from one stanchion of the window to another."

 [Illustration: Lutterworth]

On the inner side of the large panel are a variety of brief admonitorysentences, painted in Latin black letter on the thumb and four fingers of arudely outlined hand, inscribed at the cuff _Manus meditationis_; beginningon the thumb with _Nescis quantum, Nescis quoties, Deum offendisit_. Belowthe hand with its pious sentences on the respective points of each finger,two co*cks are painted, the one white and the other black; from their beaksproceed two labels, bearing further ejacul*tions (118).[70] {121}

 [Illustration: Westminster Abbey]

{122}

 [Illustration: Winchester Cathedral]

In St Paul's church, Jarrow, is a very rude seat known as the chair of theVenerable Bede; he was a monk of Jarrow, and died in 742; only the sidesand seat and the crossbar at the top are original. Mr Mickethwaite was ofopinion that it was originally a settle; and it seems hardly likely thatthe chair can have survived from the eighth century, especially as themonastery of Jarrow was repeatedly burnt by the Danes; but it is of anexceptionally hard oak, and bears marks of fire, and has had its presentdesignation for several centuries.[71] It will be noticed that thestandards have been whittled away by relic hunters (119). At Lutterworth isa well-known chair; the tradition is that it was used by John Wyclif, andthat he was smitten with paralysis while sitting in it hearing mass, onHoly Innocents' day, 1384, and was carried in it to the rectory hard by,where he died on the last day of that year. A brass plate on it records thetradition; but the chair is plainly Jacobean and of domestic origin; thereis another chair in the chancel of exactly the same shape and pattern(120). {123}

 [Illustration: Mainwaring Chapel] [Illustration: Higher Peover]

{124} At Kidderminster Baxter's chair is preserved; on it is the followinginscription:--"Rev. R^d Baxter born n^r Shrewsbury in 1615 and died atLondon in 1691. Chaplain to King Charles II. Rev. T. Doolittle, M.A. S^r H.Ashurst B^t, Kidderminster, A. 1650 D." Baxter speaks of Mr ThomasDoolittle, born in Kidderminster, as "a good schollar, a godly man, of anupright life and moderate Principles, and a very profitable seriousPreacher." To Sir Henry Ashurst, Bart., Sylvester dedicated his _ReliquiaeBaxterianae_, 1696. He also stood by Baxter in the day of his trial anddistress, paid the fees for his six counsel, and when the trial beforeJudge Jeffries was over, led Baxter through the crowd, and conveyed himaway in his coach. He was also Baxter's executor, and it is possible thechair may originally have belonged to him. At Beeston Regis, Norfolk, is afine old seat, now used by the parish clerk (119); it would seem to be ofthe period of the work at Balsham and elsewhere (3). At Winchfield,Hampshire, is another old seat of rude and early design (116).

 [Illustration: Puddletown]

Stone seats are occasionally found. Where they are placed south of thealtar, they are probably sedilia; but not when they are placed in thewestern bay or bays of the chancel or in the nave. At Barnack the remainsof a stone seat were found on the west wall of the Pre-Conquest tower; ithad formerly an oak seat and oak slabs on either side: a stone seat occursalso in the west wall of the nave of Old Radnor church. A stone seat is notuncommon in the western bays on the south side of chancels; the object ofthis is not clear; perhaps it was to provide a seat for the priest whilereading his office; in later days, as we have seen, oak stalls were commonin parish chancels, and the priest would read his office in one of these.Several examples occur. There is a rude example in the Pre-Conquest churchof Corhampton, Hampshire. Others, probably {125} of thirteenth centurydate, occur at Warlingham, Surrey, and Halsham and Sprotborough, Yorkshire.At Lenham, Kent, is one with solid stone arms, and with a cinquefoiledcanopy of later date.

 [Illustration: Redenhall] [Illustration: Redenhall]

Last, we have the Coronation chair at Westminster,[72] which has a long, ifsomewhat unreliable history behind it. The stone beneath it is said to havebeen the one on which Jacob's head rested at Bethel; from whence ittravelled to Egypt, and thence to Spain, Ireland and lastly Scotland. KingKenneth of Scotland had the following inscription engraved on it in Latinverse:--

"Ni fallat fatum, Scoti quocunque locatum Invenient lapidem regnare tenentur ibidem";

a prophecy curiously fulfilled on the accession of James I. to the Englishthrone (121). On the upper surface of the stone is a rectangular groovelarge enough to receive an inscribed plate. Edward I. found the stone in1296 at Scone abbey, where the Scotch kings had always been crowned on it.He carried it to London, and in 1300 Master Adam, the king's goldsmith, wasworking at a bronze chair to hold it. But when this was nearly {126}finished, the king altered his mind and had a copy of it made in wood--thepresent chair--which cost 100s., by Master Walter, the king's painter. Thechair has lost the quatrefoils in front, and the lions are of recent date.It originally stood in the same position as a bishop's chair, _i.e._, atthe back of the High altar and in front of the shrine of Edward theConfessor, and facing to the west. It is made of oak, fastened togetherwith pins; the surface was first covered over with the usual gesso; thengold was applied by means of white of egg, and burnished; then minute dots,forming diapers of foliage, beasts, birds, &c., were pricked on the surfaceof the gold, taking care not to penetrate it, with a blunt instrumentbefore the ground and gilding had lost their elasticity; a most tedious anddelicate process. A second chair, modelled on the older one, was made onher coronation for Mary II., Queen of William III. It used to stand by theside of the king's chair, but has been moved to the easternmost recess ofHenry VII.'s chapel. In Winchester cathedral is the chair which was used byMary I. on her marriage with Philip of Spain, which was solemnised in theLady chapel: it is now placed in Bishop Langton's chapel (122). Verysimilar is a chair preserved in York Minster, which, owing to the shieldattached in front, is probably not older than the time of Richard II.:[73]the cushion is stuffed, and covered with green velvet; the shield also iscovered with leather, the upper part of which has been torn away, and thelines upon it are but slightly stamped. At Constance is shewn a similarchair of Martin V., who was elected Pope there in 1417.

 [Illustration: Much Hadham]

{127}

 [Illustration: Cartmel]

In addition to the above, chairs are often placed in the presbytery to thenorth of the altar. These were occupied by the preacher during morning orevening service, till his turn came to ascend the pulpit and deliver thesermon. Of these the greater number no doubt have been presented by theowner of some manor house or parsonage, or have been picked up in recentyears in some second-hand furniture shop. This is probably the case withthe interesting chair which is known to have been for nearly a century inthe Mainwaring chapel of Higher Peover church, Cheshire; it bears not onlythe name, but the portrait and initials of the owner. The inscription isDORATHY MAYNWARING; she married Sir Richard Mainwaring of Ightfield, Salop,High Sheriff of that county in 1545. Most of the chair is older than hertime; Dorothy seems to have had it put together of old bits of carving,adding her name and portrait, and the raven, the crest of her father, SirRobert Corbet. She lived at Ightfield, and it was probably when that branchof the family became extinct that the chair was brought to Higher Peoverchurch, and placed in the Mainwaring chapel. At the top are holes forholding sconces in which tapers would be placed (123). {128}

 [Illustration: Suffolk] [Illustration: Halsall]

At Penshurst there used to be a chair with a bust on the inner panel of theback; the tradition was that it belonged to Sir Philip Sidney.[74] AtPuddletown, Dorset, a chair has been in the chancel for very many years; itis of Elizabethan date, and was probably brought from some hall or manorhouse. "The tall narrow back, the broadening seat, the vertically straight,but horizontally angled arms are those of the French caqueteure type rarelyseen in England. The strap carving of the back is of the best; while thetwin greyhounds with averted heads that fit the curved top of the chair nodoubt have reference to the original owner" (124).[75] At Upton, nearCastor, there {129} are two chairs in the chancel; on one of which isinscribed "A.D. 1700--Joane Browne--Want Not." The other has the initialsJ. D.; the Doves were Lords of the Manor at that time (130).[76] InRedenhall church, Norfolk, is one of two chairs brought there fromCanterbury cathedral by Archbishop Sancroft on his expulsion from the seein 1615; it is of a curious pattern common in the latter part of theseventeenth century, in which the back is hinged and can be turned over toconvert the chair into a table. Archbishop Sancroft is buried at Redenhall,which, by the way, possesses perhaps the finest church tower of any villagein England and an exceptionally fine ring of ancient bells. The other chairis kept at Gawdy Hall, the seat of the Sancrofts (125).

In many cases the chair is a composite product, made up of fragments ofscreens, bench ends and the like; this seems to be the case with the chairsin the churches of Bridford, Devon, and Othery, Somerset; that at MuchHadham, Hertfordshire, appears to be put together out of the fragments of ascreen (126). In the Chapter House of Gloucester cathedral are two chairs,on the inner panels of the back of which are carved "The Last Supper" and"The Ascension" respectively; the panels were presented in the time of DeanLaw, and, provided with a framework, now form part of two chairs.

 [Illustration: Combmartin]

Where, however, the chair has a representation of some ecclesiasticalsubject, the presumption is that it was made for the church in which it isplaced. In Cartmel Priory church is a fine chair on the back of which isrepresented the Resurrection; below are seen the Roman soldiers; above,Christ shews the wounds in His hands (127). At Sanderstead, Surrey, Abraham{130} with uplifted sword is about to slay Isaac; on the right is shewn theram, on the left an angel. The same subject appears, better carved, on theback of one of two chairs brought from a church in Suffolk, now pulleddown; on the other chair is a representation of what looks like theTemptation (128). In Halsall church, Lancashire, are two beautiful chairswith the initials IHS; beneath them is a scroll on which is inscribed _Eccequomodo amabat_ (128). In the Victoria and Albert Museum is a similar"winged" chair, which bears the initials IPI and the date 1670. In thechancel of Combmartin church, Devon, is a mahogany chair with wheat andgrapes, apparently referring to the sacramental bread and wine; it had beenfor many years in the family of the present incumbent, Rev. F. W. Jones,and was presented by him to the church; it is possible that it wasoriginally made for a church (129).

 [Illustration: Upton]

{131}

 [Illustration: Henry the Seventh's Chapel, Westminster]

 * * * * *

{133}

INDEX TO PLACES AND ILLUSTRATIONS

_Numbers followed by the name of the Photographer or the Draughtsman referto Illustrations_

 Aberdeen, King's College, 29, 68 Abergavenny Priory, Monmouth, 46, G. G. Buckley. 29, 40, 47 Amiens, 11 Aquileia, 101 Avignon, 104, F. Bond. 104

 Balsham, Cambs., 3, G. G. Buckley. 1, 5, 100, 124 Barnack, Northants, 124 Basing, Hants, 79 Bedford, 116 Beeston Regis, Norfolk, 119, C. F. Nunneley. 124 Belgium, 29, 31 Beverley Minster, Yorks., 3, 14, 14; C. Goulding. 7, Alan Potter. 27, 63, 64, and frontispiece; W. E. Wigfall. 64, 65, 106; F. H. Crossley. 5, 7, 26, 29, 40, 51, 65, 66, 68, 74, 106 Beverley St Mary, 2, F. H. Crossley. 1, 5 Bishop Auckland, Durham, 31, 67 Bishop Cannings, Wilts., 118, Wilts. Archæological Society. 119 Blythburgh, Suffolk, 11, S. Gardner. 7 Bologna, St Stefano, 101 Bossal, Yorks., 92 Boston, Lincs., 86, 95 Brancepeth, Durham, 93, F. Bond. 31, 67, 100 Braunton, Devon, 96 Brescia, Sta. Maria dei Miracoli, 82 Bristol Cathedral, 29, 50. St Nicholas, 97 Bruges, 68, 70 Burlingham St Edmund, Norfolk, 85

 Cambridge, Great St Mary, 97. King's College Chapel, 78, F. R. Taylor. 5, 29, 75, 77, 79, 82 Canterbury Cathedral, 105, S. Gardner. 23, 31, 36, 53, 84, 104, 115 Carlisle Cathedral, 21, R. Billings. 59, F. Bond. 23, 29, 51, 58, 61, 66, 68, 70, 82, 106 Cartmel, Lancashire, 80, 81, 127; F. H. Crossley. 5, 31, 75, 79, 129 Chaddesden, Derbyshire, 99, G. H. Widdows. 12, 100 Chelsea, 94, 98 Chester Cathedral, 9, W. M. Dodson. 10, 24, 53, 55, 56; F. H. Crossley. 5, 6, 7, 10, 12, 23, 26, 29, 51, 54, 58, 61, 66, 68, 70 Chichester Cathedral, 36, P. M. Johnston. 5, 26, 29, 36, 38, 47, 100 Christchurch, Hants, 2, G. F. Gillham. 76, 77; F. H. Crossley. 1, 5, 29, 75, 77, 79, 82, 105 co*ckersand Abbey, Lancs., 43 Combmartin, Devon, 129, W. M. Dodson. 130 Connington, Hunts., 116 Constance, 126 Constantinople, Santa Sophia, 111 Corhampton, Hants, 124 Coventry, St Mary's Hall, 117, Anon. 119 Cyprus, 104

 Dalmatia, 16, 101 Dinant, 31 Dunblane, Scotland, 67, W. Maitland. 5, 29, 67 Dunis, Flanders, 68 Dunmow, Essex, 116, F. R. Taylor. 116 {134} Durham Cathedral, 22, 107; R. Billings. 66, F. Bond. 15, 31, 51, 66, 68, 94, 110. Castle, 5

 Ely Cathedral, 37, G. H. Tyndall. 13, 20, 29, 36, 37, 38, 40, 43, 47, 49, 51, 61, 66, 68, 91, 106 Etwall, Derbyshire, 13, G. H. Widdows. 8 Exeter, 102, E. K. Prideaux. 103, G. H. Widdows. 12, 15, 23, 107

 Faversham, Kent, 97 Flanders, West, 68, 70 Fotheringhay, Northants, 116 France, 31, 67, 68, 92, 105 Fressingfield, Suffolk, 8

 Gawdy Hall, Norfolk, 129 Gendron-Celles, 31 Glastonbury, Somerset, 115, 116 Gloucester Cathedral, 38, Oscar Clark. 23, 29, 33, 38, 40, 129 Grado, 101 Great Burstead, Essex, 94

 Halifax, 89 Halsall, Lancashire, 128, G. G. Buckley. 130 Halsham, Yorkshire, 125 Hambleton, Worcester, 98, G. H. Poole. 100 Hampton Court, Middlesex, 75, 77 Hastières, 31 Hemingborough, Yorks., 87, C. de Gruchy. 33, 77, 88 Hereford Cathedral, 43, G. B. Atkinson. 114, A. J. Wilson. 13, 20, 26, 29, 40, 44, 108, 115. All Saints', 44, G. G. Buckley. 45, W. M. Dodson. 5, 29, 40, 47, 100. St Peter, 89, G. G. Buckley. 29, 49, 100 Hexham, Northumberland, 23, 29, 106 Higham Ferrers, Northants, 29 Higher Peover, Cheshire, 123, F. H. Crossley. 127 Huntingfield, Suffolk, 97

 Iffley, Oxon., 86 Ightfield, Salop, 128 Ingham, Norfolk, 85 Istria, 16, 101 Ivychurch, Kent, 85

 Jarrow, Durham, 119, W. Maitland. 120

 Kidderminster, 122 Kildwick, 90 Kilpeck, Herefordshire, 122 Kirkstall, Yorks., 20, 23

 Laco*ck, Wilts., 82 Lancaster, 39, 41, 42; F. H. Crossley. 29, 40, 54 Lapford, Devon, 77 Layer Marney, Essex, 75, 79 Lenham, Kent, 125 Lincoln Minster, 5, 52, 114; S. Smith. 17, Hugh McLachlan. 5, 10, 13, 23, 25, 26, 28, 29, 51, 54, 58, 59, 61, 66, 68, 91, 106, 113 Littlebourne, Kent, 86 London, 70, 79. Christ Church, Newgate Street, 4, F. R. Taylor. 5. Hampton Court, 75, 77. Rolls Chapel, 75. St Botolph, Aldgate, 94. St Mary-at-Hill, 88, 95, 96, 97, 100. St Paul's, 83, F. J. Hall. 28, 31, 82. Old St Paul's, 23. Victoria and Albert Museum, 104, 116, 130. See Westminster Abbey Louth, Lincs., 75 Ludham, Norfolk, 85 Lutterworth, Leicester, 120, E. H. Day. 122

 Manchester Cathedral, 6, 62; F. H. Crossley. 5, 7, 29, 51, 61, 65, 66, 68, 70, 74. Agecroft Hall, 116. College, 116 Mantes, 93 Melrose, 68 Milan, St Ambrogio, 16 Much Hadham, Herts., 126, A. W. Anderson. 129

 Nantwich, Cheshire, 57, F. H. Crossley. 29, 51, 58, 59, 61, 68 Nevers, 105 Newark, 29 Norbury, Derbyshire, 86 North Cadbury, Somerset, 77 Norton, Suffolk, 85 Norwich, 48, S. Gardner. 13, 19, 25, 26, 29, 40, 43, 47, 104 Notre Dame de la Roche, 31 Nottingham, 90 {135}

 Old Radnor, Radnorshire, 124 Ossero, 101 Othery, Somerset, 129 Oulton, Suffolk, 86 Oxford, 29, 79

 Parenzo, 101 Paris, Hotel Cluny, 111 Penshurst, Kent, 128 Peterborough, 32, H. Plowman. 15, 33, 116 Poitiers, 31 Puddletown, Dorset, 124, W. Wonnacott. 128

 Ratzburg, 31 Ravenna, 113 Reading, St Giles', 97 Redenhall, Norfolk, 125, C. F. Nunneley. 129 Ripon Minster, 8, W. Maitland. 60, J. H. Bayley. 5, 6, 7, 15, 23, 26, 29, 51, 61, 65, 66, 68, 70, 93 Rochester Cathedral, 30, P. M. Johnston. 23, 29, 31 Rome, 16, 19, 23, 101, 105, 111. Baths of Caracalla, 101. S. Clemente, 19, 101. St John Lateran, 101, 111. S. Maria in Cosmedin, 19, 101. St Paul extra Muros, 19. St Peter's, 111. Old, 105. Sta. Pudentiana, 111 Rotherham, Yorks., 94 Rothwell, Northants, 90

 St Asaph, 51, 61 St David's, 108, 109; W. M. Dodson. 15, 29, 50, 107, 110 St Gall, 20, 23 St Paul's, 83, F. J. Hall. 28, 31, 82 Salisbury, 92 Sall, Norfolk, 85, F. Bond. 85, 100 Sanderstead, Surrey, 129 Saulieu, 31 Scotland, 67, 68, 91 Sedgefield, Durham, 31, 67 Sees, St Martin, Normandy, 43 Sherborne, Dorset, 49, G. G. Buckley. 29, 49 Sherburn Hospital, Durham, 31, 67 Sion Abbey, Middlesex, 43 Sluys, 70 Snettisham, Norfolk, 40 Southampton, 79 Southwell, Notts., 25, 26, 50 Southwick Priory, Hants, 116 Sprotborough, Yorks., 125 Stanford Bishop, Herefordshire, 115 Stirling, 68 Stowlangtoft, Suffolk, 91, C. F. Nunneley. 5, 7, 29, 49, 85, 100 Suffolk, 128, J. C. Stenning. 49, 85, 130 Sutton Coldfield, Warwickshire, 84 Swine, Yorks., 77

 Talland, Cornwall, 77 Theydon Gardon, Essex, 92 Trau, 101 Trunch, Norfolk, 85, F. Bond. 5, 85, 100

 Upton, Northants, 130, G. C. Druce. 128

 Vaison, Provence, 101 Venice, St Mark's, 16. Sta. Maria dei Miracoli, 82

 Walpole St Peter, Norfolk, 12, S. Gardner. 7 Warlingham, Surrey, 125 Wells Cathedral, 115, G. W. Saunders. 7, 11, 13, 20, 26, 28, 29, 110. Bishop's Palace, 115, 116 Westminster Abbey, 31, Sandford. 121, A. Gardner. 21, 23, 25, 29, 31, 33, 51, 77, 125, 73; Henry VII.'s Chapel, A. W. Pugin, 73; D. Weller, 131. 10, 25, 70, 74, 75. Weston in Gordano, Somerset, 85 Winchelsea, Sussex, 36 Winchester Cathedral, 34, 122; C. E. S. Beloe. 35, S. Gardner. 72, J. F. Hamilton. 73, J. Britton. 5, 13, 23, 29, 33, 40, 43, 72, 75, 79, 126. St Cross, 75, 105 Winchfield, Hants, 116, G. C. Druce. 124 Windsor, St George's Chapel, 69, Lysons' _Magna Britannia_. 71, Alan Potter. 12, 29, 51, 70 Wingfield, Suffolk, 46, C. F. Nunneley. 29, 47 Worcester, 23, 84, 91

 Yatton, Somerset, 92 York Minster, 18, 58; J. Britton. 23, 58, 126. St Maurice, 88. St Michael Belfry, 92

 Zara, 101 Zaandam, Holland, 116

 * * * * *

{136}

INDEX RERUM

 Abbot, place in choir, 13, 106 Accounts (_see also_ Cost), 95 Arcading, 40, 54, 100 Arms and armour, 36, 48, 54 (_see also_ Heraldry) Arrangements of stalls, 12, 16, 26

 Back of Stalls, 5, 10, 15, 26, 28 (_see_ Panelling) Badges, 47 Baluster chairs, 115, 116 Bath, order of the, 74 Battlements, 36, 38, 47, 51, 54, 61 Baxter's chair, 124 Benches, 49, 99 Benefactors, 92 Bishop's chair, 13, 19 ---- throne, 101 Black Death, 40, 47, 58, 110 Boys, 96 (_see_ "Children of the Choir") Brattishing, 47, 63 Busts, 70, 77 Buttresses, 54

 Canons, resident and non-resident, 11, 25, 28 Canopies, construction of, 1, 10, 33, 54 ---- ogee, 10, 33, 36, 43, 45, 47, 50, 53, 54, 59, 65, 68 ---- bowing ogee, 10, 38, 45, 47, 51 ---- compound ogee, 54 ---- "Lincoln" ogee, 54 ---- tiers or stories of, 38 ---- varieties of, 1, 29, 51, 74, 100 Capitals, 10, 61, 82 Capping, 10 Carrel, 119 Carvers, 68, 70, 74, 77 Carving, 5, 33, 38, 53, 54, 61, 68, 70, 77, 79, 82, 108 Centaurs, 68 Chairs, abbots', 115 ---- bishops', 13, 111 ---- church, 111 ---- marble, 101 ---- popes', 111 ---- stone, 101, 124 ---- winged, 130 Chancels, 16, 20 ---- enlargement of, 86 Chantries and Chantry priests, 8 "Children of the Choir," 25, 96 Choir, 13, 16, 20 Choristers, 1, 25, 26, 85, 95 Chronological order of stalls, 29 Churchwardens' accounts, 95 (_see_ Cost) Classical design, 67, 79 Clerk, parish, 97, 124 Construction of stalls and canopies, 1, 8, 10, 33, 54 (_see also_ Canopies) Cornice, 1, 40, 47, 49, 50, 63, 100 Coronation chair, 125 Cost, 11, 79, 84, 88, 107 Costume, 36 Cresting, 29, 36, 45, 65, 72, 79 Crockets, 10, 33, 44, 47, 51 Crossing, 20, 23 Crypts, 23 Cusps, 33, 36, 43, 47, 49, 61

 Dagobert, chair of, 111 Dates of stalls, 5, 29 Dean's stall, 13, 50, 54 Design, 10, 38, 68, 70, 74 Desks, 1, 5, 7, 47, 88, 100, 119 Dorothy Mainwaring, 79, 127 Dove, 95, 129 ---- of St Botolph's, Aldgate, 95 ---- of Upton, 129 Dutch carvers, 70

 Edmund Crouchback, 33 Edmund, Saint, 7 Elbows of stalls, 1, 5, 10, 77 Ends of stalls, 5, 8 Entablature, 79, 82 Epistle, place of reading, 13 {137}

 Finials, 33, 51 Flamboyant, 40 Flemish work, 68, 70 Fleur de lis, 68 Flying buttresses, 10, 54 Foreign design and workmen, 68, 77, 79, 82 Frithstols, 106

 Gables, 10, 33, 54, 61, 65 (_see_ Canopies) Galleries, 29 Garter, Knights of Order of, 72 Gilds, 8, 95 Glastonbury chairs, 116 Gospel, desks, and place of reading, 13 Grinling Gibbons, 84

 Hawks, 47 Heraldry, 5, 6, 47, 48, 50, 79 Hipknobs, 10 Honeycomb, 77 Honour, place of, 13

 Inscriptions, 26, 28, 82 Italian workers, 77, 79, 82

 Jacobean chairs, 115, 122

 Kemp, Archbishop, 53 Knights of the Bath, 74 Knights of the Garter, 72

 Laity, 1, 16, 19, 90 "Lincoln ogee," 54

 Mainwaring, Dorothy, 79, 127 Marble chairs, 101, 106 Masks, 5, 44 Mayor's stall, 6, 15, 82, 94 Maximian, chair of, 113 Minstrels, 99 Misericords, 1, 48, 50, 53, 54, 61, 65, 74, 75 Moldings, 40 More, Sir Thomas, 94, 98 Music in churches, 95

 Niches, 10, 38, 51, 54, 58, 59, 61, 63, 65 Nobility in chancel, 91 North side, 13, 15 Number of stalls, 25, 26, 50, 75

 Oak, 68 Occupants of stalls, 1, 88 Ogee, 10, 33, 36, 43, 45, 47, 51, 53, 54, 59, 65, 68 Orientation, 16, 105 Organs and Organists, 96, 98

 Panelling, 5, 50, 68, 74, 100 Parish churches, planning, growth of, 16, 23, 25, 85, 86 (_see_ Chancel) ---- stalls in, 49, 85 Parish clerk, 97, 124 Passion, emblems of, 82 Patrons, in chancels, 91 Pediment, 33, 43, 51 Pews in chancels, 95 Pinnacles, 10, 38, 51, 53, 54, 58, 59, 61, 66, 74, 108 Place of honour, 13 Planning, 16, 20, 23, 25, 85 Plinth, 100 Poppyheads, 6, 7 Portrait busts, 77 ---- panels, 75 Position of stalls, 1, 16 Prebendaries, 25, 28 Processions, 13, 25, 92 Projection of canopies, 47 Psalter, recitation of, 26, 28 Purbeck marble, 105

 Removals from other churches, 43 Renaissance, 66, 75 Restorers and restorations, 20, 29, 38, 84 Return stalls, 12, 13, 25, 100, 106 Rochets, 97 Rood loft, 95, 98 Rows of stalls, 25

 Sancroft, Archbishop, 129 Screens, 10, 12, 19, 20, 50, 75, 79, 100 Scrollwork, 5, 82 Seats, 1, 10, 48, 77 ---- marble and stone, 111, 124 Sedilia, 124 Sella curulis and gestatoria, 101, 111 Shafts, 10, 33, 51, 59, 77, 82 Shields, 5, 6 Shoulders of stalls, 1, 5, 59 Singers, 1, 16, 95 (_see also_ Boys, "Children of the Choir," Choristers) {138} South side, 13, 15 Spires and spirelets, 1, 11, 38, 40, 49, 51, 53, 54, 58, 61, 63, 66, 72, 106 Stalls in greater churches, 1, 13 ---- in parish churches, 49, 85, 90 ---- object of, 85 Stall-wages, 26 ---- work, earliest, 31 ---- thirteenth century, 31, 88, 90 ---- fourteenth century, 33, 50, 51, 53, 58 ---- fifteenth century, 48, 50 ---- sixteenth century, 79 ---- Renaissance, 66, 75 ---- eighteenth century, 84 Standards, 8 Stanley legend, 61 Statues, 10, 51, 61 Stone chairs and seats, 101, 124 ---- _versus_ wood, 51 Stories of stalls, one, 38, 43, 44, 51, 59, 72, 74 ---- two, 10, 38, 47, 51, 53, 58, 61, 65, 72 String-course, 58, 59, 61, 65, 66 Sudbury hutch, 75 Sunday and other processions, 25, 92 Supermullions, 40, 47 Supports, 5, 77 Surplices, 89, 96

 Tabernacled spires and canopies, 1, 10, 51, 53, 66, 106 Tester, coved, 47, 63 Thirteenth century work, 31, 88, 90, 116, 125 Thistle, Scottish, 68 Three-gabled canopies, 38, 51, 54, 59 Throne, bishop's, 13, 16, 19, 101, 105 Tiers of canopies, 38 Tracery, 33, 36, 40, 43, 45, 51, 54, 58, 59, 61, 63, 65, 68, 82

 Vicars choral, 26 Ventilation, 100 Vine, 68

 Winged chairs, 130 Women in stalls, 92 Wood _versus_ stone, 51 Workmanship, 100 Wyche, Lady, 94 Wiclif, 122

_Printed at_ THE DARIEN PRESS, _Edinburgh_.

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SCREENS AND GALLERIES IN ENGLISH CHURCHES

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_Builders' Journal._--"The author may be congratulated on the production ofa book which, in text as well as in illustrations, is of striking andinexhaustible interest; it is the kind of book to which one returns againand again, in the assurance of renewed and increased pleasure at eachreperusal."

_Tablet._--"The numerous excellent illustrations are of the greatestinterest, and form a veritable surprise as to the beauty and variety of thetreatment which our forefathers lavished upon the rood screen."

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_Scotsman._--"At once instructive and delightful, it more than justifiesits existence by its historical and architectural learning."

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_Yorkshire Post._--"Another of the valuable series of monographs on ChurchArt in England, and the most entertaining of all."

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 * * * * *

Notes

[1] Harry Sirr in _Art Journal_, 1883, 329.

[2] Wickenden, _Archæological Journal_, 1881, pp. 43-61.

[3] Canon Church in _Archæologia_, lv. 326.

[4] _Dictionnaire raisonné_, viii. 464.

[5] C. R. Peers in _Victoria County History of Northants_, ii. 445.

[6] Illustrated in the writer's _Screens and Galleries_, 2.

[7] Faber's _Poems_, pp. 227-229.

[8] See the writer's _Westminster Abbey_, 48.

[9] For plans of St Gall, Kirkstall, Westminster, Canterbury, Exeter, York,see the writer's _Gothic Architecture in England_.

[10] For an account of the working of the system of Secular Canons in theEnglish cathedrals see Canon Church's paper in _Archæologia_, lv.;Professor Freeman's _Cathedral Church of Wells_; Mr A. F. Leach on_Beverley Minster_ in vols. 98 and 100 of the Surtees Society, and on_Southwell Minster_ in the 1891 volume of the Camden Society; and Rev. J.T. Fowler, D.C.L., on _Ripon Minster_ in vols. 64, 74, 78, 81 of theSurtees Society.

[11] See Mr A. F. Leach's _Memorials of Beverley Minster_, Surtees Society,vols. 98 and 108.

[12] Views of galleried choirs may be seen in Britton's _CathedralAntiquities_; Norwich, ii. 13, Oxford, ii. 10.

[13] Illustrated in Maeterlinck, _La genre satirique dans la sculptureflamande et wallonne_, page 12.

[14] See Viollet-le-Duc's _Dictionnaire_, viii. 464.

[15] See C. R. B. King in _Index_ to _Spring Gardens Sketch Book_, ii. 46,and Plate XLVI.

[16] Hope's _Rochester Cathedral_, pp. 110, 111.

[17] It is illustrated in Professor Lethaby's _Westminster Abbey_, p. 23,from Sandford's _Coronation of James II._, and is reproduced above.

[18] Illustrated in _Gothic Architecture in England_, 481.

[19] See _John O'Gaunt's Sketch Book_, vol. i.

[20] Here, as always, one has to recognise the technical and artisticexcellence of Mr Crossley's photography; he has even reproduced thecobwebs.

[21] They are ascribed to the fourteenth century by Mr Octavius Morgan in_Monuments of Abergavenny Church_.

[22] My attention was directed to these arms by Mr W. H. St John Hope.

[23] Jones and Freeman's _St David's_, pp. 87 and 91.

[24] Illustrated in Dart's _Canterbury Cathedral_, 145 and 160.

[25] E. Mansel Sympson's _Lincoln_, 277.

[26] Illustrated in the writer's _Gothic Architecture in England_, p. 269.

[27] A photograph of the north range of the Chester stalls forms thefrontispiece of the writer's _Misericords_.

[28] Mr C. H. Purday.

[29] Illustrated in Murray's _Welsh Cathedrals_, page 267.

[30] Illustrated in the writer's _Fonts and Font Covers_, 296.

[31] _Ecclesiastical Architecture of Scotland_, ii. 105. Drawings by Mr J.B. Fulton appeared in the _Builder_, 1st Oct. 1898 and 2nd Dec. 1893; andby Mr A. S. Robertson in the _Builders' Journal_, 14th Jan. 1903.

[32] Macgibbon and Ross. _Castellated and Domestic Architecture ofScotland_, v. 543; and _Builder_, lxxv. 293, in which are measured drawingsby Mr J. B. Fulton.

[33] _Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries_, i. 112.

[34] For information relating to the Windsor stalls I am indebted to Mr W.H. St John Hope: see his paper "On a remarkable series of Wooden Bustssurmounting the stall-canopies in St George's chapel, Windsor," in_Archæologia_, liv. 115, and the building accounts to be published in hisforthcoming work on _Windsor Castle_.

[35] See the writer's _Westminster Abbey_, 146.

[36] _Sacristy_, i. 266.

[37] The Hampton Court busts are by Giovanni de Majano, who in 1521demanded payment for ten "medallions of terra cotta." They cost £2. 6s. 8d.each. R. Blomfield's _History of Renaissance Architecture in England_, 3.

[38] Illustrated in the writer's _Westminster Abbey_, 197.

[39] See also the illustration of the chair made _c._ 1545 for DorothyMainwaring, page 123.

[40] See Willis and Clark, i. 516-522.

[41] Gotch's _Early English Renaissance_, 29, 254.

[42] _Annales Caermoclenses_, by James Stockdale; Ulverston, 1872, p. 76.

[43] _Early Renaissance Architecture in England_, 38.

[44] _Annals of St Paul's_, 447.

[45] Measured drawings of the stalls of St Paul's by Mr C. W. Bakerappeared in the _Building News_, 1891, pages 108 and 358.

[46] The Renaissance woodwork ousted from Worcester cathedral by SirGilbert Scott found a resting-place in the church of Sutton Coldfield (R.A. D.).

[47] Willis' _Canterbury Cathedral_, 107.

[48] These are illustrated in _Archæologia Cantiana_, vol. xiii.

[49] _York Fabric Rolls_, 35, 248.

[50] Canon Savage's pamphlet, 369.

[51] Cutts' _Parish Priests_, 466.

[52] Gasquet's _Parish Life in Mediæval England_, 96.

[53] Gasquet, _Parish Life in Mediæval England_, 45.

[54] It is of course possible that both Alan de Alnewyk and RobertConstable sat in the chancel in surplice either as a member of a gild or ofthe choir.

[55] This, however, may have been for one of the choirmen or choristers.

[56] Reproduced in Gasquet, _ibid._, 47, from Didron.

[57] Wordsworth's _Salisbury Ceremonies and Processions_, 20.

[58] Inhibitions of Archbishop William of York in 1308 and 1312 in Rev. DrFowler's _Memorials of Ripon Minster_, Surtees Society, vol. 78.

[59] "South chancel" may mean "the chapel south of the chancel."

[60] Admirably edited by Mr Littlehales for the Early English Text Society;vols. 20 and 24.

[61] At Hambleton (98) the chancel was remodelled, and the simple deskswith linen pattern may be of that date. But the seats behind were nevermore than rough movable benches.--G. H. P.

[62] R. H. Murray on _Ancient Church Fittings_, 12.

[63] Mr T. Graham Jackson's _Dalmatia_: iii. 319, 427, 105: i. 272 and ii.123.

[64] Stewart in _Archæological Journal_, xxxii. 18.

[65] Jones and Freeman's _St David's_, 90-93.

[66] Padre Garrucci in _Proceedings of Society of Antiquaries_, iv. 40, andillustrations in _Vetusta Monumenta_, vol. vi. The perspective sketch is byCarlo Fontana and is in the Royal Library at Windsor; the measured drawingis by Signor S. A. Scardonelli, and was made in 1784.

[67] Measured drawings of the Hereford chair by Mr W. H. Brierley appearedin the _British Architect_, xxiii. 114.

[68] Described by Dr Cox in _English Church Furniture_, p. 250.

[69] Shaw's _Ancient Furniture_, 31.

[70] _Wiltshire Archæological Society's Magazine_, vi. 147-149, quoted in_English Church Furniture_, 253.

[71] _Archæologia Æliana_, xvii. 47, and _Proceedings of the Society ofAntiquaries_, xvii. 238. There are four similar chairs at Kilpeck.

[72] For descriptions and illustrations see Mr J. Hunter's "Edward theFirst's Spoliations in Scotland, A.D. 1296" in _Arch. Journal_, vol. xiii.;Mr W. Burges' paper in "Gleanings from Westminster Abbey," p. 121; and MrLethaby's _Westminster_, pp. 18, 265, 297.

[73] Henry Shaw's _Ancient Furniture_, Plate VI.

[74] Illustrated in Hone's _Year Book_, 143.

[75] Rev. Arthur Helps from _Country Life_, 12th March 1910.

[76] Communicated by Rev. R. M. Serjeantson

Front matter

 [Illustration: Beverley Minster]

WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHES

I.--Stalls and Tabernacle Work

II.--Bishops' Thrones and Chancel Chairs

by

FRANCIS BOND

M.A., Lincoln College, Oxford; Fellow of the Geological Society, LondonHonorary Associate of the Royal Institute of British ArchitectsAuthor of "Gothic Architecture in England," "Screens and Galleries inEnglish Churches," "Fonts and Font Covers," "Westminster Abbey,""Misericords"

Illustrated by 124 Photographs and Drawings

Henry FrowdeOxford University PressLondon, New York, Toronto, and Melbourne1910

{vii}

Archive.org edition

1THE LIBRARYOFTHE UNIVERSITYOF CALIFORNIALOS ANGELES

WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHESI.—MISERICORDSPrinted at The Dakien Press Edinburgh

Chester CathedralWood Carvings inEnglish Churchesi. — misericordsBYFRANCIS BONDM..\., LINCOLN COLLEGE, OXKOUD; KliLLOW OK THE GEOLOGICAL SOCIEiV, LONDON HONORARY ASSOCIATE OF THE ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS AUTHOK OF "flOTIlIC ARCHITECTURE IN ENGLAND," "SCREENS AND CiALLERIES IN ENtlLISH CHURCHES,"" FONTS AND FONT COVERS," "WESTMINSTER AHISEY"ILLUSTRATED BY JAl PHOTOGRAPHS AND DRAWINGSHENRY FROWDEOXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESSLONDON, NEW YORK, TORONTO, AND MELBOURNE1910

PREFACEIn the year 1125, St Bernard of Clairvaux, writing to William, Abbotof St Thierry, asks:

" What mean those ridiculous monstrosities in the courts of cloisters; those filthy apes, those fierce lions, those monstrous centaurs, those half- men, those spotted tigers, those fighting soldiers and horn-blowing hunters; many bodies under one head, or many heads on one body; here a serpent'stail attached to a cjuadrupcd, there a cjuadruped's head on a fish; here abeast presenting the foreparts of a horse, and dragging after it the rear ofa goat; there a horned animal with the hind parts of a horse?"It is a question which must have suggested itself to many, whensurveying the wealth of imagery on a Norman doorway or the carvingsof stalls and benches. What does it all mean? How did it get into churches of all places? And where did it come from? This is thefirst subject which is dealt with in this volume. To deal with it adequately would be to write a complete History of Ecclesiastical Zoology as it is set forth in the Bestiaries, the popular text-books in the Middle Ages; there is not room here for any such ambitiousattempt. Yet even this brief synopsis of the contents of the Bestiaries may be of service; for the elucidation of the meaning and origin ofthe subjects represented on the misericords throws light on medievalart in general; on the representations in stone on Norman doorwaysand fonts, on the carvings of Gothic capitals and arcading, on wallpaintings, incised tiles, stained glass, and much else. But the carvings tell us much more than what mediaeval peoplethought about Birds, Beasts, and Fishes. They are a record of justwhat stately historians omit, and what it is of real interest to know;not the ways of courts and politicians, campaigns and generals, butthe simple everyday life of ordinary folk; they constitute a Historyof Social Life in England in the fourteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries as it was lived by common folk; a history which representsthings as they are without the prejudices and prepossessions which sooften make written record untrustworthy. What we see is an honest30GP}c89viii PREFACEtranscript of what went on every day in the cottages and the streets, the fields and the woods; we see country folk ploughing, sowing,weeding, mowing, reaping, carting, threshing; fattening and killing the family pig, sheep-shearing, milking; we see them enjoying their sports and pastimes; we hear the alehouse jests, the wise saws andmodern instances, hoary witticisms, proverbs and nursery rhymes.The limitations of their Bible knowledge and of their acquaintancewith the legends of the Saints throw a curious light on the religiousatmosphere of bourgeois life. Their opinions on music and art anddancing, on the high observances of chivalry, on the preaching andmendicant friars, on the medireval doctor and dentist, find forcible expression. They are the censors of vice; no form of immoralityescapes theii lash. The carvings present to us a picture—realistic and true —of that history which does not find its way into books. Nor is the work of the carvers to be neglected in a comprehensivehistory of English art. The art of the easel picture is a great art, but it is not all. There is another art; humbler it may be, but, unlike the former, indigenous, and that savours of the soil. Beginning withlovely illuminations of psalters and missals, it passes into the carvingsof stalls and bench ends, and into popular chapbooks and almanacks. Many a figure scene on the misericords is well worth study, while fromthe carving of leaf and bloom modern designers might well take lessons. The book is the first attempt, here or abroad, to deal comprehensively with the whole subject of the carvings of misericords. Beinga first attempt, it is naturally imperfect. From limits of space, the treatment of the animals described in the Physiologus is very summary

an adequate account of any one of them would occupy more pages thanit has been found possible to give lines. But all the more importantsets of misericords have been studied in situ; and of these and of manyhundreds of other examples, the writer has been supplied with photographs and drawings. Nevertheless it may well be that importantexamples have not come before his notice. Moreover, the interpreta- tions given of the subjects here illustrated are anything but immunefrom criticism; the meaning of the representation is only too often obscure, and may be contested. There are also many examples not mentioned in the book which need elucidation. But at any rate something will have been done to help others in the way. For the benefit of those who may come across other examples not here classified anddated a special chapter has been inserted, in which are given thecriteria from which as a rule the chronology of the carvings may beascertained.PREFACE IX Owing to the liberality of many friends it has been possible toillustrate the book lavishly with photographs; in justice to them it should be added that photogra[)hs of misericords are taken under mostditificult conditions; the high average excellence of the results is the more deserving of commendation. To reproduce the photographs thehalf-tone process is adopted; this necessitates loaded paper, which no one regrets more than the writer. Of the mediaeval misericords vast numbers have perished; e.g., of those formerly in the quire of Westminster Abbey all but one havegone. The fine examples at St Nicholas, Lynn, were sold by the churchwardens in 1853; they are now to be seen in the museum of the Architectural Association in Tufton Street, Westminster. Advertise- ments of misericords for sale have appeared in quite recent times. Yeta large number fortunately survive. It is to be hoped that this bookmay increase interest in these carvings and arrest the work of mutilation and destruction. But decay is ever at work, and there is always therisk of fire, and wherever misericords remain, those in authority woulddo well to adopt the course taken at Beverley Minster, Worcester,Gloucester, and Ely cathedrals, and have every example carefullyphotographed.As will be seen from the Bibliography, the literature of the subjectis scattered over a vast number of papers and articles in the transactions of archcTological societies, some of them unindexed, and many difficult of access; so far as the writer knows, all these sources have beenexamined. Mr G. C. Druce has contributed expert criticism to the improvement of the text. At Ely and A\'orcester every misericord has been specially i)hoto- graphed for this volume by Mr G. E. Tyndall and Mr C. B. Shuttleworthrespectively; and complete sets of photographs have been contributedof the misericords at Gloucester and Ripple by Mr R. W. Dugdale, of those in Chichester cathedral by Mr P. M. Johnston, of those in Chester cathedral by Mr F. H. Crossley, of those in Beverley Minsterand St Mary's church by Mr C. Goulding, Rev. W. E. Wigfall, andMr F. H. Crossley, and of those in Exeter cathedral by various friends. For photographs of misericords in other churches the thanks of thewriter are due to Mr Harold Baker, Mr Oliver Baker, Mr James Barr, Mr E. M. Beloe, F.S.A., Dr G. Granville Buckley, Dr P. B. Burroughs,Mr F. H. Crossley, Mr W. Marriott Dodson, Mr A. Gardner, Mr S. Gardner, Mr C. Goulding, Mr Everard L. Guilford, Mr H. E. Illingworth,A.R.I.B.A., Mr P. M. Johnston, F.R.I.B.A., F.S.A., Mr W. Maitland,Mr H. E. Miller, Mr C. F. Nunneley, Mr C. H. Oakden, Mr A. Palmer,bX PREFACEMr (".. Parker, Miss Carrie Percival-Wiscnian, Mr W. Percival-Wiseman,Miss M. P. Perry, Mr J. Philips, Miss E. K. Prideaux, Mr S. Smith,Mr G. H. Tyndall, Mr I). Weller, Mr G. H. Widdows, A.R.I. B.A., Rev. \V.!•:. Wigfall, Mr A. J. Wilson, and Mr K. W. M. Wonnacott, F.S.I. The drawings from the Bestiaries are copied from Cahier andMarlin by Miss Dorothy E. Smith. The illustrations are reproducedby the Grout Engraving Company. The text is preceded by a Biblio- graphy and is followed by an Index to Places and Illustrations and a Subject Index. The following is the present position of the series of Church Art Handbooks in course of publication by the Oxford University Press: —CHURCH ART IN ENGLAND.1. Screens and Gal/cries in En>^/is/i CInirchcs: by Francis Bond. 6s. Published.2. Fonts and Font Covers: by Francis Bond. 1 2s. Published.3. Wood Cafi'ini^s in Eui^lish Churches; I. Misericords: by Francis Bond.7s. 6d. Published.4. Wood Carvings in English Churches: II. Shjllz<.'ork, Chairs andThrones: by Francis Bond. Nearly Ready.5. Wood Carvings in English Churches; III. Church Chests., Alineries,Organ Cases, Doors., Alms and Collecting Boxes: by P. M. Johnston.In Preparation.6. Wood Ca>-i>ings in Ens^lish Churches; \X. Bench Ends, Poppy l/eadsrt//<//\'7<.'j.- by Alfred Maskell. In Preparation.7. The Architectural History of the English Monument: b>- JamesWilliams. /// Preparation.Uniform with the Above.8. Westminster Abbey: by Francis Bond. los. Published.9. Military Architecture in Em^land: by A. Hamilton Thompson. /// Preparation.CONTENTSPAGE IJiiii.iocRAPHY OF Misericords - - - xvP A R T ICllAl'TICKI. Eastern Mythology -----i St Michael - - - - - i St George ------2 Phcenix ------3II. Classical Mythology -----5 Peaco*ck • - - - - 5 Siren -------8 Mermaid - - - - - - 10 Dolphin - - - - - - '4 Centaur - - - - - - MSatyr and Wodehouse - . - - - 16 Argus and lo - - - - - - 18 Masks - - - - - - - 18III. The Phvswlugu^ ... - 191. Lion ------222. Tiger ------263. Elephant ------274. Hart - - - - - - 315. Antelope - -----336. Eagle 347. Fox ------368. Whale . - - - • 389. Panther -----3910. Serpent - - - • - 4011. Beaver ------4212. Hyena - -----4213. Otter and Crocodile - - - - 4214. Lizard ------4315. Dove ------4416. Raven ------4417. Pelican - - ... - 44ii CONTENTSCMAI'TER PAGEIII. Thk Phvsiologus {continued)—i8. Owl ......4719. Swallow -----.4820. Partridge -----48I\', Thk Phvsiologus {continued) - - - - 4921. Unicorn ------4922. Salamander - - - - - 5323. Reniora ...---5424. Charadrius .....5425. co*ckatrice or Basilisk - - - - 5526. Barnacle - - - - - - 5727. Terrobuli ------57V. The Phvs/ologus {continued) - - - - 5828. Dragon -----5829. Griffin . - - . - 6030. \\'y\ern ------ 6231. Lindworm -----6332. Amphisbicna, S;c. -----64PART II\'I Tk.wKLLKRs' Tales - . . - 671. Monk Calf- - . - . . 692. Papal Ass . - - - - 69\'1I. Medi.kval ROMAN'CKS .....701. Reynard the Fox . - ...702. Shifts of Reynardine - - - - 753. Sir Yvain --.---764. Chevalier an Cygne - - - - 775. Lathom Legend - . - - . 786. Ale.xander's Flight - - - - 787. Lay of Aristotle - - - - - 818. Virgil's Tryst - ....839. Valentine and Orson - - - - 83\'III. .-Esop's Faulks --.-..85IX. Scenes of Everyday Life - - - - 87-X. Agriculture and Trades - - - - 91.XI. Sports and Pastimes; and N.\tural History - 97XII. Months and Se.vsons - - - - - 114 XIII. Old Testament Subjects - - - - 128 XIV. New Testament Subjects - - - - 142X\'. Miracle Plays ------148CONTENTS XlllCflAl'TEK XVI. Sain'I's and Doctors ok thk ChurchXVII. SVMIiOLlSM- - - . . XVIII. SaTIRK ON JOUST.S AND TOURNAMENT.SXIX. Satirk on ReligionXX. Satire on Doctors and Dentists - XXI. Satire on Music and DancingXXII. Moral Lessons - - - . XXIII. Nursery Rhymes and Wise SawsXXIV. A TOPSY TuRVv WorldXXV. Heraldry and Inscriptions - XXVI. Foliage and Figure SubjectsPACE '49'57 '59162 r68171 176185 188'93 200 PART IIIXXVII. The Use of MisericordsNomenclature - XXVIII. Design of the Seats - XXIX. Criteria of DateCostume, Armour, &c. - XXX. Lists of Misericords - XXXI. Chronology of Misericords -208 208211215 219224 226Index to Places and IllustrationsIndex Rerum 234

BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MISERICORDSAdei-inI';, J. Sfalks de la cathednxle dc Kouoi. 183S. Allen, J. Romilly. Christian Symbolistii in Great Jh-itain and Irelandbefore the Thirteenth Century."On the Norman Doorway at Alnc," in the British ArchcrologicalJournal, xHi. 143. Amiens. Sec Durand mvX Jourdan.AsHTON. " Chap Books of the Eighteenth Century."liAUDja.AiRic, Charles. Cnriositcs ccsthc'tiqi/cs in CEuvrcs completes.Paris, 1885. BELCiiUM. See Maeterlinck. Beverley Minster. See JVildridge.Bloxam, M. H. Gothic Architecture, ii. 44. Boston. See Trollope.Boutell, Rev. C. " Misericords in ^^'orcestcr Cathedral Notes andQueries, 8, ix. 405. Brampton Misericords. See Cambridge Antiquarian Society, N.S.,i. 28. PjRISTOL. See Lavars, Lethersage, JFarren. Browne, John. York Minster. Plates of grotesque capitals. 1847. Brushfield, T. N. " On Norman Tympana." British Arch. Assoc. 1900. Page 241. Purges, W. " Paganism in the Middle Ages." Ecclesiologist, xviii. 205. Cahier, p. Caracteristiques des saints dans Part populairc. 2 vols.folio. Poussielgue, 1867. Cahier and Martin. Melanges dArcheologie. Paris, 1847.A^ouveaiix Melanges d'Archcologie. Paris, 1874. Vitreaux de Bourges. Paris, 1841. Cambridge, King's College. See Willis. Carter, John. Specimens ofAncient Paintino^ and Sculpture. London,1780-87. Carlisle. See Henderson. Cartmel. See Whitaker. Champfleury, Jules. Histoire de la caricature au moyen age. Paris, 1871.xvi BIBLIOGRAPHY OF MISERICORDSChester. See Hugha and Hmvson.Church, Canon. "Stalls and Misericords of Wells Cathedral."Archceologia, Iv. 319. Clark, Oscar. "On the Misericords of Gloucester Cathedral."Bristol and Gloucester Archceol. Soc, xxviii. 61. Clarke, Miss Kate. " Misericords of E.xeter Cathedral." DevonAssociation, xxxix. 233. Cox, J. C, and Harvey, Alfred. English Church Furniture. 1907. Crowther, T- S. Manchester Cathedral. Plate xxvii. Manchester,1893- Dalton, O. M. " On Two Mediaeval Caskets," in BurlingtonMagazine, v 299. Darlington. See Longstaffe.Detzel, H. Christliche Ikonographie. Fribourg en Brisgau, 1894. Druce, G. C. "The Sybil Arms at Little Mote, Eynsford." Arclucologia Cantiana, xxviii. 363. "The Symbolism of the Crocodile in the Middle Ages." ArchceologicalJournal, Ixvi. No. 264. DuRAND. La cathedrale d'Amiens. 2nd vol. 1903. Durham. See Fowler.Ev.\NS, E. P. Animal Symbolism in Ecclesiastical Architecture. 1896. Exeter. See Clarke, Hems, He-ivett. Feasev, H. p. " Misereres in Minster Church, Thanet." Xew Reliquary,January 1903. Fowler, James. "On Mediaeval Representations of the Months andSeasons." Archceologia, xliv. 137. "The Months in Carlisle Cathedral." Cumberland and West- moreland Ant. Society. 1875. Fowler, J. T. " Misericords in Durham Castle Chapel and the Cathedral." Notes and Queries, 4, xi. 459. France. See Witkowski.Fryer, Alfred C. "Misericords of St David's Cathedral." Archceologia Cambre?isis, 5, xvii. 43. Gloucester. See Clark. Halifax. See Savage.Harrod, Hexrv. Castles and Convents in Norfolk, pages 278 and 331. Norwich, 1857. Hart, Rev. R. N'orwich and Norfolk Arch. Soc, ii. 234. Hems, Harry. " Woodwork in Exeter Cathedral." Building Netvs, 4th December 1855. Henderson, Miss. " Misericords of Carlisle Cathedral." Cumberlandand Westfnoreland Transactions, xii. 103.i;ri;i,i()f;i;Arii\' oi' misi:iQ{i Marfiii.I low SON, Dt'an. Ifaiidhook to Cfh'ifi-r Catlicdnil. Ai)i)tMi(li\ iii. IIuoiii'.s, '1\ Canx. Misnicords of ( 'licster (.'allicclral." C/icstcr.Ircluro/oi^^iial Joiinial, \. 1. Jicurn, Li.i'.wioi.i.VN. " Ail under tlic Scats, in Art Journal. 1875.(I'agcs 53, 85, 145.) JfiURDAN and Dlivai,. Stallcs dc la cat/icdralc d'Aiitieiis. 1848.Ki';v.SKR, C. K. JVori/ian '/yi/ipa/ia. London, 1904. Land, Professor. Arlitlr on " I'hysicjiogus," in the F.ncyclof^trdiaJh-ita)uiica. Larvvooi), JacoI!, and IIottkn, |.(". History of Si<;/il>t)ards. London,1 866."LArciiKKi', I""riki)RIcii. Gfsriiidite dcs J'/iysio/oi^NS. StrashurLj, 1889. This gives an account of the various editions and translations ofthe P/iysiologus.La\'ARs, \l. C. Sculptured and Carved Work in Ihislol Cathedral.Bristol, 1875. Lkniknt. La satire en France au jnoyen axe. Paris. Nouvclleedition. Letts, E. F. "Misericords in Manchester Catliedral." Aancasl/ireand Cheshire A. S., iv. 130. Levkrsagk, P. History 0/ Bristol Cathedral. CHfton, 1854. LiMKRicK. See J FaIter and ]\'estropp.Lincoln. See Sacristy and Wickendeu.LoNt;sTAFFE, W. H. I). History of Darlington. 1854. Page 218. Lonsdale, W. H., and Lee, E. C. Drawings of the Signs of the Zodiac in Architect^ i7tli December 1870. Lynn. See Taylor.?*L\ccoLL, D. S. "Grania in Church; or. The Clever Daughter."Burlington Mag;azine, vol. viii. No. 32. Maeterlinck, L. La genre satirique dans la sculpture Jhvnande et wallonne. Paris, 19 10. ]\L\LE, E. Hart religieux du XIIL'^ siecle. Manchester. See Cro7vther and Letts. Mari'IN, T. a. "Misericords at Higham Ferrers." NorthamptonshireNotes and Queries, iv. 611. Minster. See Feasey.Mgr. Barbier de Montault. Traite d'iconographie chrctienne.Paris, 1890. Morris. Early English Text Society, vol. xli.x. Latin poem on theBestiary; also Anglo-Saxon version of it. c-Will P.IIUJOGKAI'HV OF MISKKirORDSNkalk and Bravi.ky, Westmiustcr Abbey. London, 1818. Nichols, John. Illustrations of Mauncrs and Expenses in Englandfrom Chiirclnvardens^ Accounts. London, 1797. NoAKES, John. Misericords of Worcester Cathedral, with photograplisl)y Mr Aldis. 1873. Norwich. See Harrod and Hart. NOTKS ANT) QUKRIES. PaSSini. Phii'SON, Miss Emma. Choir Stalls and their Cannngs. London, 1896. This includes drawings of nn'sericords in the following churches: —Bakevvell. Bedford. Beverley Minster. Beverley St Mary.Brampton.Cami)ridge, King'sCollege.Chichester Cathedral. Chichester Hospital. Christchurch. Durham Castle. Durham ("atliedral. Ely. Exeter. F'aversham. Ford ham.Gamlingay.Richer, Dr Paul. IJArt et Fm Medicine. Rouen. See Adeline. Savage, Canon \V00d7vork of Halifax Church. St David's. See Eryer.Sacristv, i. 5, 93, 193, 293; ii. 39, 255, 323Windsor misericords. Taylor, W. Antiquities of Lynn. 1844. Page 72. Thoms, W. J. Collection of Early Prose Romances. Roxburghe C'lub. History of Reynard the Eox. Percy Society, vol. 45. Trollope, Archdeacon. " Misericords in Boston Church." OldReliquary, xiv. 129, 209; xv. 17. Vincent de Beauvais. Speculum Xaturale. This practically sums up all that was known of .science in the Middle Ages.\^iNVCO.MB, John. Eictitious and Symbolical Creatures in Art. London, 1906. ViOLLET-LE-Dur. Dictionnaire raisonne. Paris, 1854.Clayton.High am Ferrers. Irthlingborough.Leighton Buzzard. Lincoln Minster. London,St Katharine's. Lynn St ALargaret.Lynn .St Nicholas.^h^idstone. Malvern. AhmchesterCathedral. Minster in Thanet. Oxford All Souls. Oxford New College.Peterborough.Richmond.Rothwell. Soham.Sutton Courteney.Swine. Throwlcy.Tilney.Walpole St Peter. ^\'ellingborough.Westminster.Wimborne.Winchester(Cathedral. Winchester College.Windsor.Paris, 1902.Halifax, 1909.on the Lincoln andI'.IIU.IOCKAI'IIV ()! MISl.klCCJRDS XIXW^ALCOTT, Rev. M. Iv ('. Sanrd Atr/iu'()Io<:;y. London, i86S. Waltkr, I). A. " IJini;iick ('athcdral." Rcliijiiaiy, N.S., vii. i 2(j. \Varr1'-,n, R. II. "The Misereres in IJiislol ( "athrdral. " Cliftdu.lutiijiiariaii Cltth^ i. 241.W'i'W.i.s. See Cliiinli. (Joni|)lele set of pholograplis hy Mr l'liili[)s in the l,ii)rary of the Society of Anti(iuaries.Wkstkoim', T. J. "(Carvings in St Mary's (Jhurch, Linu-rick.'/VoccediHi^s of A'oya/ Society of .ln/i(/uan'cs of Ireland. 1892. Page 70.W'l'.sriMiNsri'.R. See Xcale.W'liAi.i.i'.v. See W/iitaker.WiiiTAKEK, T. I). Whalhy a/id Car/mvl, ii. 587. WiCKKNDiCN, Prebendary. "The Choir Stalls of Lincoln Cathedral."Associated Socie/ifs' Reports, xv. 179. W'li.DuiDOK, T. T. Misereres in Jn'verley Minster. Hull, 1S79.\Vii,i.is and Ciakk. Arcliitectiiral History of tlie University ofCai)il'ridi:[e. 18S6. Windsor, Sr CiKORGk's. R. \V. T. in Sacristy, i. 59. WiTKOWSKi, Ci. J. Lart profane a Pei^/ise. Paris, 190S.• Les seins d Pci^iise. Paris, 1907.\V()RCKstf:r. .See Boutell and Noakes.W'ric.ht, Thomas. A History of Domestic Manners in Englandduring the Middle Ages. London, 1862. A History of Caricature and Grotesque in Literature and Art. London, 1864. Anecdota fjteraria. London, 1844. Early Mysteries, c>v. London, 1838.Archieological Album. London, 1845. Popular Treatises on Science in the Aliddle Ages. London, 1841." On the Carving of Stalls in Cathedral and Collegiate Churches."British Arch. Assoc, iv. 203. Essays on Archieological Subjects. 1861. Wright and Halliwell. Reliquiae Antiquir. 1841 and 1843. For the Phvsiologus see also the bibliographies appended to Professor Evans' book and I'rofessor Land's paper.

WOOD CARVINGSIN ENGLISH CHURCHESI. -MISERICORDSPART I CHAPTER I EASTERN MYTHOLOGYThe zoological imagery of the Middle Ages mounts back to an immense antiquity. Some of it has been imported, almostunaltered, direct from the primitive mj-ths of Eg\-pt. Theunion of human bodies with the heads of beasts and birds is especially characteristic of Oriental religion. These hybridcreatures of fancy, whether the sphinxes which guarded theportals of the temples of Thebes or the colossal winged lions ofNineveh and PersepoHs, originated in the priestly proclivit}' to symbolise and to express m)'stical esoteric ideas in materialforms. So on Egyptian monuments Osiris and T}-phon are seen determining the value of souls by weight, and condemningeach, in accordance with the doctrine of metempsychosis, to bere-embodied in the animal form for which it had fitted itself byits manner of life in a previous stage of existence.* In Christianart the Archangel Michael and Satan are usually the protagonistsin the scene, but at Autun and St Lo the scales are held by thehand of God reaching out of the clouds. At Bourges Satan is * Professor Evans suggests that an independent origin of this repre- sentation is to be found in the warning of the prophet Daniel to lielshazzar, "Thou art weighed in the balances and art found wanting."2 WOOD CARVINGS IiN ENGLISH CHURCHEStr\-in<^ to cheat; he has put his foot in the scale, while one of hisimps is pulling at it from below. In mediaeval representationsof the weighing of souls there are far more women than menwaiting in queue; the mediaeval artist never forgave woman for)-ielding to the suggestions of the devil and thereb}' bringing ruinon the whole human race; moreover he regarded her as still themost efficient agent in disturbing the meditations of pious men.In Kg>'pt again was celebrated on the 23rd of April theslaying of the desert-demon, Seth-T\-phon, producer of drought,sterility and famine, by Horus, the vivif\'ing and fertilisingprinciple. Bas-reliefs in the Louvre and the British Museumdepict the god as a mounted warrior thrusting his spear into theneck of a crocodile, the emblem and incarnation of Typhon.Norwich CathedralThe m\-th spread from Egypt to S)'ria and Asia Minor. NowinCappadocia there was a canonised knight and martyr, St George.Mis festival is on the 23rd of April; he is usually shown as amounted warrior, and as slaying not a crocodile but a dragon.*Plainly he is but Horus adapted for Christian use. From AsiaMinor he was brought to Europe by the Crusaders, emblazonedon their banners. This is how England got its patron-saintin 1222.

• On one of the two columns of the I'iazetta at \'enice the crocodile is represented, but he is being slain by St Theodore, not St (ieorge. " Rahab,"says Mr Ruskin (.S7 J/ar^'s Kest, p. 23), commenting on Psalm Ixxxvi., " is the crocodile-god of Egypt, couchant on his slime, born of it, mistakablefor it —his gray length of unintelligible scales, fissured and wrinkled like dryclay, itself but, as it were, a shelf or shoal of coagulated, malignant earth."

ka.sti;rn .MVTiior/j(iY 3 On Henry the Seventh's tomb at Westminster is a beautiful representation by Torris^iano of St Michael wei^hin^ a soul, while an ini[) below is tryinLj to depress the scales.* On the misericordsill Lincoln Minster there arc two representations which mayrefer to St George: in one a knight is fighting a griffin; in a second a knight on horseback is spearing a dragon. Normanrepresentations of St George and the Dragon remain over thedoorways of Fordington, Dorset, Ruardean, Gloucester, andelsewhere. Our old friends the Lion and Unicorn arc also oflCgyj)tian origin.Nor are there wanting survivals of a form of religion probablyequally remote, that of Sun-worship. Christmas, Epiphany,Easter, Whitsuntide, the Midsummer rY\ast of St John are allWestminstersurvivals of a solar or stellar cult. Most of all does this appearin the legend of the Phoenix.TJie Phiviiix.—She is fabled to live in a far-away Arcadia in the East till five hundred years are overpast; then she flies to HeliopoHs in Egypt, where she sets fire to herself and consumes away upon the high altar of the Temple of the Sun (3). When the priest comes next day to offer sacrifice, he removesthe ashes from the altar, and finds therein a small worm ofexceeding sweet odour, which in three da)'s develops into a young bird; on the fourth, in full size and plumage, she greetsthe priest with reverence and returns to her home. In Jewishwritings the Phoenix is often mentioned. On Roman cinerary

• Illustrated in the writer's Westminster Abbcy^ p. 202.

4 WOOD CARVINGS I\ ENGLISH CIIUKCIIKSurns, with peculiar appropriateness when the body had beencremated, she is often sculptured with the inscription DISMAN I BUS. She appears on coins of Constantine and the earlyChristian emperors. Hence the bird passes to the sarcophai;iand mosaics both of Rome and lijv.antium; for as Lactantiuswrites "she has gained eternal life b)- the boon and blessing ofDeath." Finally, since Phtenix is Greek both for the bird andthe date-palm, the latter also becomes, by a "diseased et)'mology," a symbol of immortality. Therefore St Jerome and theSeptuagint translate a passage of the Book of Job, " I shall diein my nest and multipl}- m>' days like a date-palm." The treewas fabled to die and then to spring up again like the bird.And so the exegesis of Psalm xcii. 12, "The righteous shallflourish like a date-palm," was that the righteous should win thepalm of immortality. On early Christian sarcophagi, e.i^., onein St Apollinare in Classe, near Ravenna, representations of thedate-palm are common. Sometimes both the tree and the birdare depicted. In the tribune of St John Lateran, Rome, is astately palm tree on the top of which perches a phiL'ni.x.ciiaptI':r II CLASSICAL MYTHOLOGYA I'Ai; more important source of Christian symbolism is t(j befound, as was to be expected, in Classical mythology. In the early days of Christianity there was naturally much"accommodation." Deities and rites which could not be ex-])ellcd forthwith were Christianised—coated over with anallegorical import. i\n especial favourite was Orpheus, fromhis descent into Hades to rescue his lost Eurydice. EvenBacchus and his train were pressed into Christian service; for Christ was the vine and the Church a vineyard; in theChristian mosaics of the tomb of Constantine's daughter at Rome is a charming representation of the vintage, with little Pagan genii treading the grapes. So Amor and Psyche becamesymbols of the love of God and the human soul. Theseus andthe Minotaur appear on a mosaic in St Michele, Pavia, sideby side with their antitypes, David and Goliath. The Labyrinthin which the Minotaur was killed was repeated on the pavementof many of the greater churches, being adapted for certain forms of penance; several examples remain on the Continentamong them is one, well preserved, in the Chapter house ofBa}^eux cathedral. The golden apples guarded b\' a dragon in the garden of the Hesperides typified the tree of knowledge in the garden of Eden. Mercury or Hermes is not onlythe conductor of souls, but, with a ram on his shoulder,represents the Good Shepherd. The Sib)'ls * were thoughtto have prophesied the advent of Christ, and become Christianprophetesses on Giotto's campanile and on the bronze gatesof Ghiberti at Florence, and on the pavement of Sienacathedral. Virgil's Fourth Eclogue finds place in Christiansculpture.The Peaco*ck.—In the Imperial da)^s of Rome the peaco*ck- was the sacred bird of Juno as the eagle was of Jupiter; the" For a full account of the Sibyls in Christian art see appendix to Husenbeth's Emblems of the Sai/its.6 wool) CARVINGS IN KNCILISII CIIUKCIIKSformer naturally became the emblem of a Roman empress,and the latter of a Roman emperor. After death empress andemperor became if>so facto deities; and side by side with thedeified cnn)ress was represented a peaco*ck. So the peaco*ckbecame the s\mbol of apotheosis and of immortality. It is constantly found as a Pagan emblem on the tombs of theapotheosised, and on funeral lamps. Then it became a favouriteChristian emblem of immortality; and in B)'zantine art is exceedingly common. Hardly anything is more beautiful in the whole range of Byzantine sculpture than the two peaco*ckswhich may be seen in chancel screens in the Brescia museumand Ancona cathedral, drinking from a chalice the sacramentalwine of eternal life. This use of the peaco*ck as a s\-mbolExeterof immortality was aided by the belief that its flesh wasincorruptible. " Ouis enim nisi Deus," says Augustine, "deditcarni pavonis mortui ne ])utrcscerct? " Westminster Abbeypossessed albs embroidered with j^eaco*cks. Now for the significatio of the peaco*ck. First, it cries out suddenly in the night,says P/iysiologus, because it dreams that it has lost its beauty; thereb)' typifying the Christian who is in fear of losing gracein the darkness of this world. Secondly, it sometimes loses itstail, and in that case typifies the man without foresight; forits tail being behind is that which is to come, and foresight is the faculty of perceiving what is to come; and when the tailis lost, there is nothing to come; ergo no foresight.*

• Evans, 312.

I'^xctcrExeterCcaitmel8 WOOD CARVINGS IX ENGLISH CIIURCHKSOn misericords in Cartmcl priory church and Durhamcathedral and New College, Oxford, are peaco*cks with tails outspread and crests upraised. The beautiful s}-mbolism oftwo peaco*cks drinking from a vase has been mentioned above.The symbolism seems to have been extended to other birdsthan peaco*cks. On a misericord in Lincoln Minster the centre- piece consists of two birds, which from their crests may bepeaco*cks, eating the fruit of the vine; while each supportercontains two tall birds, more like cranes, drinking from afountain; the s\'mbolism can hardly fail to be of sacramentalimport. At Exeter on one misericord two birds are turningtheir heads aside from a foliated branch; in another theyJjostonhave turned round and are pecking at it (6); similar is therepresentation of tlie birds and tlie bunch of grajjcs on thetwelfth century fonts at Winchester and Monmouth.* On asepulchral slab in Bishopstone church, Sussex, is a spiritedrepresentation of two birds drinking from a vase. We maycompare, but with doubt, the two swans eating corn in a sack, shewn on misericords at Cartmel and BeverleyMinster.The Siren.—"Syrens," says the Physiologus, "are deadlyanimals, with the upper parts of a man and the lower partsof a bird. And they make music and verj- sweet song, and bytheir dulcet voices charm the cars of sailors far away so that

• Illustrated in the writers Fonts and Font Covers, 169.

Carlisle.iponLudlowlO WOOD CARVINGS IN KNC.LISII CHURCHESthey become drows)-. Then when they sleep, they attack themand tear them to pieces. This is the end also of those whodeli<jht themselves in theatrical pleasures, which are tragediesand comedies and music."In Isaiah xiii. 21 it is written, "Their houses shall be full ofdoleful creatures and ozc/s shall dwell there and satjTS shalldance there." But where the Authorised Version has "owls,"the Septuagint translates " sirc?is." Hence there was Bibleauthority for the existence both of sirens and satyrs. Ulyssesis therefore often represented in Christian art sailing past theIsle of Sirens, symbolising the ship of the Church with the earsof its crew stopped to the seductions of the senses. But veryearly the ecclesiastical zoologists mixed up sirens and mermaids,quite perverting Homer's ancient talc. The siren often holds afish in her hand. Now a fish is not only a monogrammaticemblem of Christ, but since, as Tertullian says, at baptism weare spiritually " born in water like the fish," it comes to signifyin a secondary sense the Christian or the soul of a Christian.Therefore a fish in the hand of a Siren signifies the soul heldin the grip of libidinous passion. Sirens are frequently re- presented in mediaeval sculpture, e.g., in the Norman workat Stow Longa, Huntingdon. In most cases they are repre-sented as mermaids. At Carlisle (9) and All Saints' Church,Hereford, Mr G. C. Druce notes that the connecting linkbetween the two forms is to be found in the fact that thoughthe siren has a mermaid's tail, she retains the feathers andclaws of a bird. The Merinaid.—Of all subjects the mermaid was themost popular, partly perhaps because her curving tail fitted so gracefully the space on the misericord. * Normallyshe is represented with comb in one hand and mirror in theother, as at Cartmel and Westminster. To the mermaid all the attributes of the sirens were transferred; at Boston therefore she is represented charming by her music the marinersin a boat (8). At Exeter are two mermaids holding atambour or drum over the head of a man with a distortedface; this is explained b}' Mr G. C. Druce by reference tothe story of the sailor who was dragged down b\' mermaidsto the bottom of the deep blue sea (7). There was notroom for the whole sailor; so onl}- the head is shewn. Here* Mermaids occur on misericords at IJakewell, Beverley Minster, Boston,Bristol, Carlisle, Cartmel, Durham castle and cathedral, Edicsborough,Halifax, Hereford, Lincoln, Ludlow, Malpas, Malvern, Norwich cathedral, Oxford All Souls', Stralford-on-Avon, Wells, Westminster, Winchestercathedral, and elsewhere.rr,A.s.sirAi, M\'rii<)i.<)(;v IINorwichWestminster12 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CIIURCIIKSis a modernised version of the mermaid's exploits from anAnglo-Saxon Bestiary:" In the sea are found Wonders many.The merman is A maiden Hike On breast and on body; But from navel netherward She is no man like. Merrily singelh she And hath many melodies. Shipmen steering forget For her many melodies,Slumber and sleepAnd too late waken. The ships sink with the guileAnd come up no more." The moral is that men are like mermaids; the)- speak fair, buttheir deeds are evil. Sometimes, as at Exeter (7), the mermaidis represented with a fish in her hand; now a fish is equally thes\-mbol of Our Lord, the letters of the Greek word for "fish"corresponding with the initials of "Jesus Christ, Son of God,Saviour," a Christian, a Christian soul, or souls generally; in themisericords therefore the fish in the grasp of a mermaidsymbolises a Christian soul which has been caught by theenchantments of evil. A merman often accompanies themermaid, as in Chichester hospital and Stratford-on-Avon.There may be here a survival of classical mythology, the refer- ence being to Triton, son of Neptune and Amphitrite, who,according to Apollonius Rhodius, had the upper parts of a manand the lower parts of a dolphin. The explanation probably is that the artists, like Matthew Arnold, provided the mermaid witha husband by poetic licence. Mermaids are often associatedwith dolphins, as in a charming speech of Oberon:" Thou rememberestSince once I sat upon a promontory.-\nd heard a iiicr)iiaid on a dolpJiin's backUttering such dulcet and harmonious breath That the rude sea grew civil at her song, And certain stars shot madly from their spheresTo hear the sea-maid's music." On misericords at Beverley Minster, Gloucester, and Ludlow (9)mermaids are accompanied by dolphins. The strange repre- sentation of a mermaid suckling a Hon occurs on misericordsin Wells and Norwich cathedrals (ir), and at Edle.sborough,Bucks.ExeterLaven hamChichester14 WOOD CARVIXCS IN I-.NCl.ISII CnUKCHKSThe most famous literary tradition connected with themermaid associates her with the Mermaid Tavern frequentedbv Sir Walter Raleigh, Shakespeare, Ben Jonson, Beaumontand Fletcher, which was in Bread Street. Beaumont, writingto Ben Jonson, says:" What things have we seen Done at the Mermaid? heard words that have been So nimble and so full of subtle flame As if that any one from whence they came Had meant to put his whole wit in a jest And had resolved to li\e a fool the rest Of his dull life. And when that was doneWe left an air behind us, which alone Was able to make the next two companies(Right witty, though but downright fools) more wise."The mermaid is the device of many families here and abroad.On the brass of Lord Berkeley at VVolton-under-Kdge, c. 1392,there is a collar of mermaids over the camail. Sir Walter Scottempl()\'ed the mermaid as a supporter, and Lord B\-ron as acrest.The Dolphin.—This powerful swimmer, "most royal of thosethat swim," says Gregory of Nyassa, was of frequent occurrence both in Greek mythology and in Greek art. Among its specialfunctions was that of bearing the soul across the sea of deathto the islands of the blest; hence it was often carved on tombs.Dolphins are shewn on misericords in Beverley Minster, Gloucester, and Ludlow (9); the latter is a remarkably vigorousdesign.The Centaur.—This composite creature is exceedinglycommon in Norman sculpture. Like most of the ecclesiastical monsters, it enters into heraldry also. The centaur is usuallyrepresented with bow and arrow, annoying the believer, at veryshort range, with " the fiery darts of the wicked." This Sagittaryappears in the arms of King Stephen, and may serve to datethe chancel arch of Adel church, and the font at West Rounton,Yorkshire. Usually the centaur is a personification of unbridledanimal impulses and passions. At Exeter there is a male as well as a female centaur; and the former has transfixed a dragon which forms the left supporter; the dragon being anevil beast, the centaur here must be virtuous (13). In Philip deThaun's Livre des Creatures Sagittarius as a sign of the Zodiacis said to symbolise Christ.It was well known in Greek and Roman mythology. Whenf't,Assi( \i. M\'rli()i,f )(;Y 15Chestery-Encas dcsccncls to the nether world, Virgil makes him sec centaurs at the portals, with a host of other monsters:" Multaque praeterea variariiin monstra ferarum,Ccniaiiyi in foribiis st(xbiilaut^ Scyllaec|ue l)ifonncs, Et centumgeminus Biiareus, ac belua Lernae. Horrendum stridens, fiammisque armata Chimaera,Gorgoncs, Harpyiaeque, et forma tricorporis umbrae." The centaur is generally represented as half man, half horse; but the Physiologus describes him as half man, half ass. Heis ^&QX\ on misericords at Exeter, Ely, Lincoln, Worcester, andNew College, Oxford. Later examples sometimes quite desertBeverley St Maryl6 WOOD CARVINGS IN KNtJLISIl CIlURCIIKSthe earlier representations; thus at Worcester one centaur playsthe viol, and the other the cithern or guitar; and the lattercreature has human arms and hands instead of hind legs. AtLavenham, Suffolk, are a male and a female creature; the latterhas the fore parts of a beast, the former the hind parts; thefemale creature is playing the viol, the male is mocking herby playing on a bellows with a crutch for bow (13). AtChichester a centaur pla\-s the tabor (13).The Satyr and the Wodcliouse.—At Athens, in the greatdramatic contests, each writer was expected to produce atrilogy—viz., a traged}', a comed\' and a satiric drama. Thechief actors in the last assumed the dress of satyrs or wild menof the woods, and clad themselves in goatskins, disguising theirfaces by rubbing them over with the lees of wine. In Romanliterature and art also the satyr was one of the most familiar andpopular personages. In the Middle Ages his appearance musthave been familiarised to every one by the remains of Romanart. Moreover he was twice mentioned in the Bible. Isaiahsays, " Owls shall dwell there and satyrs shall dance there(xiii. 21); and "The wild beasts of the desert shall also meetwith the wild beasts of the island, and the satyr shall cry to his fellow " r.xxxiv. 14). After that no doubt could be entertainedas to the corporeal realit\- of the sat\r. But in mediaeval da\-shis classical origin seems to have been forgotten, and his namewas changed; he is called a " wodehouse " or a " woodhouse,"and is provided with a new histor)-. It seems that the" savage man " lives in the deserts of India, where he has a hornin the middle of his forehead; this horn, however, is rarelydepicted. He lives in high trees on account of the serpents,dragons, bears and lions which abound in those parts. He is naked, except when he has killed a lion, when he uses the skinas a garment; hence he is represented as a hairy man. Sometimes, no doubt, genuine " hairy men " turned up in the woods,where they had run wild; and it may well be that the wodehouse is but a representation of one of these, and not a productof Classical or Biblical literature. The wodehouse is a verycommon supporter in heraldry. In the East Anglian fonts ofthe fourteenth and fifteenth century the stem of the font is often encircled by small nude hairy men carrying clubs; e.g., on the font of Saxmundham.* The wodehouse is very commonon misericords, and is often engaged in combats with dragonsand wyverns. In some cases, where a wodehouse is shewn, thereference may be to Orson, one of the protagonists in the late

• Illustrated in the writer's GoiJtic Arc/iitccture in Englixnit, 248.

CLASSICAL M\ 'I IIOLOCV 17i8 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CIILRCIIKSArgus and lomediitval romance of Valentine and Orson. At Chester twohairy wodehouses have wyverns for mounts (15).Argus and lo. —Perhaps no Greek story would seem at firstsight less suitable for Christian ermeneutics than that of theheifer lo guarded by the hundred-e)'edArgus. But an illustration of it is given inthe Bestiary* with a most edir>'ing moral.It does not appear in ecclesiastical art. Masks. —Masks of men and animalsare very common on the misericords; themask of the lion is the favourite, as thelion's head and mane, seen end on, easilylend themselves to decorative treatment.A fine set of masks occurs on the miseri-cords of St Margaret's, L}-nn (17). One particular mask, thatwith the tongue lolling out, is of exceptional antiquity; it isfrequent on Eg\'ptian monuments and is attributed by Sir(iardner Wilkinson to the god Tjphon. It occurs also inGreek statuary, where an important variant takes the form ofaMedusa's head. At Rome there was a special class of buffoons,whose mask had a wide mouth and a lolling tongue, probablyworked with strings. This particular grotesque, therefore, sucha favourite on misericords and gargoyles, may la\' claim to aver)- venerable ancestr)'. But it can hardly ha\e been necessaryto borrow from Greece or Rome such an obvious grotesquemotive as a grinning mouth with the tongue lolling out; it mightbe seen at every village feast where the country bumpkinsgrinned through horse collars, and would recur spontaneouslyas a promising subject over and over again in the long historyof the art of caricature (60). * Cahier and Martin, ii. 20.'9CHAPTER III THE PHYSTOLOGUS1>IKI)S, l^KASTS AND I'^ISIIKS" The //KU/i^'h/ of the mcdhcval world made visibleAnother source of the ecclesiastical zoology of the MiddleAges is to be found in the works of Aristotle on natural history.He had been tutor to Alexander the Great. In his Indianexpedition the latter sent him many specimens of Orientalfauna, and no doubt descriptions of others, which Aristotlestudied from a scientific point of view. The media,^val zoologists,however, far preferred the marvels told of India and Persia byCtesias and Megasthenes, and later the Natural History of theRoman Pliny, an encyclopaedic compilation of current traditionsand popular superstitions.The chief text-book of the medi;eval zoologist was Plin}-'sNatural History. Again and again, as will be noted below,e.g., in the descriptions of the hart, panther, beaver, otter,unicorn, salamander, remora, elephant, dragon, Plin)-'s wordsare quoted almost verbatim. All that the Pkysiologiis has donehas been to add the passages in the Bible which speak of theanimal in question, blending and reconciling as well as may bethe Biblical description with that of Pliny, and then drawing anedifying moral. I'rom one source or other, the earl)' Christianzoologist had a plentiful stock of material. The Talmud haddeclared that "he who interprets the scripture literally is aliar and a blasphemer." Philo of Alexandria, half Jew, halfHellenist, had given an esoteric treatment to the Mosaic records. Origen recognised in the Scriptures a threefold sense, literal, moral, and spiritual. Origen positively denied that the Bible was meant to be understood in a literal sense. " He who is so stupid as to believe," says this great theologian, " that Godplanted trees in Eden like a gardener, and reall}' put there a tree called the Tree of Life, is in danger of losing his wits." And20 WOOD CARVIN(]S IN ENCILISII CHURCHESTigerHart Antelope EagleEaglets WhaleTlIK rilVSlULOGUS 211 'anther Hvena^sS^i^'^^Otter' -"'• -\'",'^z;^ Ra\enPartridge CharadriusBarnacles Terrobuli22 WOOD CARVINGS IN KNCLISIl CIIURCIIKSagain, when commenting on the clothes provided for Adam andEve after the Expulsion, " W hat old woman would believe that God cut the throats of animals to make skin dresses for themlike a tanner?" It is from the letter, he sa}-s, that all the heresies come; the letter of the Bible is to be read only to get at themystic treasures wrapped up therein. What was true of theBible narrative was true of the Bible animals; they were " moralbeasts "; and what was true of them was true of animals in general, and of plants too. When Solomon spake of all trees and of beasts and fowl and fishes, he did not write botanicaltreatises, but " moralities." And what was true of genuine, wastrue of imaginary creatures also; else the believer must haverejected the apocah-ptic monsters of St John the Divine. Allthis was justified by such sayings as that of Job: " Ask thebeast and it shall teach thee; and the birds of heaven, andthey will tell thee." Gradually all this crystalli-sed into acollection of some fifty moral beasts, called The Pliysiologusi.e.. The Naturalist; or sometimes the Book of Beasts, or theBestiary.The Pliysiologus is at least as carl)- as the fifth centur\', and was translated into Latin, Ethiopic, Arabic, Armenian, Syriac,Anglo-Saxon, and all the principal Germanic and Romancelanguages. Probably no book was so popular in the MiddleAges. And, unlike most literature, it was translated into dialect,and thus became ever}'where the possession of the commonpeople. Everx'body knew the moral beasts; and a representation of one of them on a capital or a bench end, a reference to another in a sermon or a song, was caught up at once, andrelished by man, woman, and child. That is wh\- media.n-al architecture, especially in the eleventh and twelfth centuries,teems with zoological sculpture, to us usually a mystery andsometimes an offence, but once a lesson understood and appreciated of all the common people.I. The Lion.Here are a few specimens of the Pliysiologus. We cannotdo better than commence with the lion. No beast is of moremajestic mien; whether he is as brave as he looks, modernsportsmen take leave to doubt. Anj'how he is of such an imposing presence that of all beasts he is the one most frequentlydepicted in wood and stone. But he had other and strongerExclcrManchester24 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CIIURCIIKSclaims on .Art. What they arc is set forth clear!)- in Theobald'smetrical version of the Pkysiologus"Tres leo natinas et tres habet inde figuras. Si venatorem ])cr notum sentit odoremCauda ciincta linit c|uae pes vestigia fij^it. Et quotiens donnit nunquam sua lumina ciaudit. Natus non vi^ilat dum sol se tcrcio K'T'I^; Sed dans rugitum paler ejus suscitat ilium; Tunc quasi vivescit, tunc sensus quinque capescit."So that the lion has three natures. The first nature is that if he scents a himtsman, he obliterates his footsteps with his tail. The foundation of this is doubtless the habit which everybodymust have noticed in a ca<.^ed lion, that he s[)cnds hours in nervously swishint^ his tail about. But the exegetist has a mystical explanation. "In like manner," he says, "Our Lordconcealed all traces of His Godhead, when He entered into thewomb of the Virgin Mary and became man " (23). The secondnature is that the lion sleeps with his eyes open. So Our Lordslept with His body in the grave, but His spirit was awake at the right hand of God. For this bit of natural history the Physiologist was indebted to that very credulous person, ^Elian. Butwhen once accepted, it was easy to find support from Scripture; for is it not written in the Song of Solomon v. 2, " I sleep, but ni)- heart waketh "

and in Psalm cxxi. 3, " Behold, he that keepeth

Israel shall neither slumber nor sleep "? This second peculiarityof the lion makes him a symbol of vigilance, and so a brace of lions are very frequently carved in marble to guard with vigilancethe portals of a church; e.g., at St Zeno, Verona, and thecathedrals of Pisa and Siena. Says a mediaeval poet, " Est leo, sed custos, oculis quia dormit apertis; Templorum idcirco positus ante foras." Sometimes, as on the Norman font of Eardisley,Herefordshire, he is represented with one eye open and theother shut, giving him rather a waggish look. In the carvingsof the misericords the lion's mane is always emphasised that there shall be no mistake about his identity. A fine thirteenthcentury lion occurs in an Exeter misericord (23); others at Manchester (23) and elsewhere. But the lion has a third nature.It is an undoubted fact of natural histor}' that the lion's roar is appallingly loud. Now why this so loud roar? Evidently it needs explanation, and it receives one. It seems that "thelioness always brings forth her cubs dead; but on the third daytheir father, the lion, comes and roars over them and brings themto life by his breath " (20). The evidence for this is a rather dubious blessing bestowed on Judah by Jacob in Genesis xlix. 9:'iiii': I'livsioi.ocus 25" Jiulah is a lion's whcli); he stooped clown, he couched as a lion,and as an old lion; who shall rouse him up?" Which things,says Orit^en in his comincntai')- on the Book of Genesis, are veryapt of Christ, "who was buried three days and three nights in the heart of the earth, till He had ended the sleep of death." Centuries later, Abelard, like Origen, gives the Physiologiis as the scientific authority for his facts:" Ut Iconis catulus Resurrexit DominusQucm rugitus patriiis Die tertia Suscitat vivificiis Teste physica. 'Thus the lion breathing over the cubs became, like the Pha-nixand the Pelican, a symbol of the Resurrection. At Freiburgin Breisgau a stained glass window contains a painting of theCrucifixion; above it is a Pelican in piety; and above thepelican is a lion breathing on three whelps. Underneath thelion is the inscription, " Hi(c) Leo P^orma Sfalvatoris) "

ie., " This Lion is a t)-pc of the Saviour." * So far the lion is a ver)- good beast; all his three natures

are very much to his credit. He symbolises the Lion of Judah,Our Lord Himself. Unfortunately he also symbolises the Devil,who "goeth about like a roaring lion, seeking whom he maydevour." Moreover Daniel was thrown into a lions' den; andboth Samson and David won renown for throttling lions. Andit was written of the good man, " Because thou hast made theMost High thy habitation, thou shalt tread upon the lion andthe adder; the young lion and the dragon shalt thou trampleunder feet." All this is very upsetting. A brace of lions at a church doorway ma}- s}-mbolise vigilance; but when the}' hold a lamb or a calf in their paws, as in some examples in Itah', the}'s}'mbolisc the powers of evil, compelled against their will to carry a church porch on their backs. The carvers at times foundit very difficult, no doubt, to make it clear what sort of beast theirlion was, a good beast or a bad one. The good-natured grin onthe faces of the lions in the chancel screen at Torcello leaves nodoubt in that case; compare the cheerful lions on the misericordat Ely (177); that at Exeter (23) also appears to be a well- intentioned beast; he is clearly the lion of the Bestiaries, andtherefore is a s}^mbol of Christ. Often the lion is simply theemblem of St Alark, as at Venice; and occurs with the other

• Evans, 83.

26 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHESemblems of the Evangelists. A lion also used to visit St Jerome,where he sat in a cave }-ear after year motionless in thought overhis translation of the Bible; and so a lion is often shewn fawningon him, as in one of the statues of Henry the Seventh's chapelat Westminster.*2. The Tiger.The story of the tiger and her whelps is first told b}- Pliny.India produces the tiger, he says, "an animal of tremendousswiftness. The hunter seizes the whelps"; (probably to bereared for the wild beast combats in the Roman amphitheatres)" he has to be provided with a very fleet horse, with another inChesterreserve. When she finds her lair cmi^ty, the tigress darts forth and tracks them by the smell. When she comes up, he throwsone of the whelps to her, with which she returns to her lair. Thenshe rushes back and he throws another to her; and this goeson till he reaches his ship " (20). On this the mediaeval naturalists made two improvements. Noting that Pliny had statedthat the River Tigris was so called because of its arrowy swiftness,and that the Tiger also was of tremendous swiftness, they naturally enough came to the conclusion that the river was namedafter the animal because of its swiftness. Secondly, instead ofthe hunter throwing down whelps, he successively throws downmirrors, and the tigress stops, paws a mirror and looks into it, and* Illustrated in the writer's Westminster Abbeys p. 212.'11 IK I'inSIULOGUS 27lliinks it is her cub slic sees. Then a second mirror is thrown,and she hcs down to suckle her reflection in the mirror. Meanwhile the huntsman makes off. In a MS. illumination quotedby Mr Druce * and reproduced by him, " the tit,^er's spots andstripes are well delineated, the former bein<^ painted in blue andwhite circles, the latter in blue and red wavy lines, while themirror also reflects the colours of the tiller." Misericords at Boston and Chester (26) have similar representations.3. TlIK ELEI'IIANT.The elephant naturally attracted the attention of theP/iysioloi^iis; more especially as elephant and howdah completeare mentioned in a deed of daring described in the First Bookof Maccabees, chapter vi., when the Jews battled with KingAntiochus, who had many elephants: "And to the end they mij^ht provoke the elephants to fight, they shewedtlieni the blood of grapes and mulberries. Moreover they divided the beasts among the armies, and for every elephant they appointed a thousand men, armed with coats of mail and with helmets of brass on their heads; and, beside this, for every beast were ordained five hundred horsem*n of thebest. These were ready at every occasion; wheresoever the beast was, andwhithersoever the beast went, they went also, neither departed they fromhim. And upon the beasts were there strong towers of wood, which coveredevery one of them, and were girt fast unto them with devices; there werealso upon every one two and thirty strong men, that fought upon them,beside the Indian that ruled him." The account goes on to relate howEleazar Saravan "perceiving that one of the beasts, armed with royalharness, was higher than all the rest, and supposing that the king was uponhim, put himself in jeopardy, to the end that he might deliver his peopleand get him a perpetual name; wherefore he ran upon him courageouslythrough the midst of the battle, slaying on the right hand and on the left; which done, he crept under the elephant, and thrust him under and slew him; whereupon the elephant fell down upon him, and there he died." Howdahs occur in Beverley Minster, Beverley St INIary's,Gloucester cathedral and elsewhere. In a misericord formerlyin St Katherine's by the Tower, a princess with diadem andflowing locks is seen above the battlements of the howdah.The Elephant and Castle is a well-known tavern in SouthLondon, and forms the arms of the City of Coventry. Theelephant from St Katherine's in the Tower is a very remarkablebeast; he has the head of a hog, and is muzzled like a bear; while his trunk is of telescopic construction and issues fromthe middle of his mouth, where his tongue should be. In

• See his paper in ArcJucologia Cantiaiia^ xwiii. 363.

28 WOOD (AkNIXC.S TN EXC.I.ISII CHURCHKSl^c\erlc}' Minster the cle[}h;uit has huije ears curtain-fashioned,and is being whacked behind by an ape; the supporters arca Hon and a camel. The Gloucester beast has the feet andtail of a cart horse and the head and ears of a bloodhound; from the middle of his mouth issues a flexible trunk fashionedlike an ear trumpet. Of the various elephants depicted thebest are those on the stalls of Rij^on Minster and licvcrleyMinster (29), and on a misericord in Exeter cathedral, whicliis the earliest example in wood carving; the chief defects in it are that the tusks turn up instead of down, and that the legs,instead of having knees, have hocks like a horse; the last peculiarity is in accordance with the description in the Pliysiologus. Otherwise the representation is so accurate that itExetermust have been taken from life, or from a sketch made from aliving elephant; indeed the species can be determined; thegreat ears and tusks shew him to have been an Africanelephant. Now Matthew Paris says that the first time anelephant was seen in England was in 1255, when one was givenby Louis IX. of Erance to Menr\' III.; and that people flockedto see it from all parts of the country. Of this animal MatthewParis himself made a sketch in the manuscript of his History.It follows that this particular misericord cannot be earlier thanthe year 1255, and that the whole series at Exeter probablybelongs to the third quarter of the thirteenth century. Thesinister supporter of the Exeter elephant is the head of acitizen with close-cropped hair; on the dexter is the head of\i: ni\si( )|,<)(;ks. 29Beverley Alinster30 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CIIURCIIHSa lady of w caltli, wearing a head band and chin band, and herhair in a net; somewhat rescmbh'nt^ the effigies of the latethirteenth century at Englefield, Berkshire, and Romsey abbey.*In some mysterious way the description of the German elkgiven by C;esar in his Commentaries, vi. 27, seems to havebeen transferred to the elephant; both animals are stated tohave no joints in their legs; (the elk does indeed move in astiff and awkward fashion). Ciesar says: " These <^?/f^jr or elks have legs without joints. They do not lie down,and if they fall, cannot get up. They lean against a tree when they seekrepose. When the hunters find the place, they undermine the tree or else cut it partially through; then when the elk comes and leans against it, thetree falls and the elk with it." All which, with improvements, is told of the elephant, andwas long an article of faith. Shakespeare says, " The elephanthath joints, but none for courtesy; his legs are legs for necessit}-,but not for flexure." A fine account of the elephant as he oughtto be is given in the old English Bestiar\-, quoted by Dr OscarClark. The poem begins with a description of the elejihantsin rich India, with bodies big as rnountains" On bodi borlic berges—Hike." The rest of the description, summarised and modernised, is asfollows: " He hath no joints that he might rise with. A tree he seeketh to That is strong and steadfast, And leaneth him trustlike thereby,When he is of walk weary. The hunter hath beholden this; -Saweth through tree and underprops.Then cometh this elei)hant hugeAnd leaneth him upon his side. Goes to sleep by the tree, in the shadow. And fall they both so together.He roareth rueful and help calls." All the other old elephants run up to his assistance, but get himon his legs again they cannot. Then runs up a small youngelephant' Running cometh a youngling.Swift to him stoopeth.His snout under him putteth.And with help of them all This elephant riseth."

• Miss Clarke in her paper on the Exeter Misericords reproduces

Matthew Paris' sketch.THK I'lIVSIOI.OflUS. 31 And what is the moral? Adam fell thr()UL,di puttini,^ forthhis hand to take the a[)ple from the forbidden tree; therefore, as one writer succinctly puts it, " Adam fell through a tree." And as the elephant fell throu<,di a tree, he must typify Adam.Adam fell throui^h a tree; Moses in vain and the prophets tried to raise him; a cry went uj) to heaven, and Christ came downto their aid; and b}' death went as it were under Adam, andraised hiin from "dim hell." Another characteristic of elephants is that they are coldand passionless; and when they would have young, must eat mandrakes (Genesis xxx. 14). This again connects them withAdam and Eve, who were believed to have found in the forbiddenapples the properties of the mandrake. Anyhow the elephantbecame a s)'mbol of priestl}' chastity, and was often embroideredon chasubles.4. The Hart.In the Natural History of the Medi.tval Church careful observation reveals here and there a substratum of observed fact, however minute; e.^:, in the description of the lion, the pelican,the salamander, the eagle, the whale, the serpent, the raven, theowl, the partridge, the antelope, the co*ckatrice. But when wecome to the hart, we have a description which is remarkable not merely for its utter divorce from reality, but from the enormousmass of authority by which it is supported. Probably in thewhole lengthy history of human error no better example can befcHuid of the weight once attached to the argument from authority. In the first place, the hart loves solitary, rocky places; thereinbeing a t}'pe of the saint who retires from the world to pass alife of purity and solitude in the contemplation of God, whetherhe retire to the desert, like the ancient hermits, or to themountains, sa)'ing to himself in the words of the Psalmist, " I will lift up mine eyes unto the hills, from whence cometh my help."Unfortunately, even in the solitude of the desert or the hills, the good saint does not leave evil behind; evil passions, evil thoughts, evil dreams, pursue him to his retreat, as they did StAnthony; in the very clefts of the rocks, and in the tops of theragged rocks, these dragons or serpents of the soul have their abode, where they lurk in fear of the Lord (Isaiah ii. 21). Whatis the good hart to do in this invasion of dragons? It is onl}-necessary to turn to the writers on natural history to know whathe did. It will be enough to quote Plin)-. That author says32 WOOD CARVINC.S IN ENGLISH CHURCHESthat " the stag is of that class of animals which wages unceasingwar with the serpent. Stags seek out the holes of serpents, andsnort into them, and thereb)- force them from their retreats. Forthis reason the smell of burnt hartsJioni is the only knownspecific for driving away serpents." ^-Elian, in his History ofAnimals, says the same. So do Zenophon, Plutarch, Lucretius,Lucan, Martial, Appian, Josephus, Tertullian, St Jerome, StChrysostom, St Basil the Great, St Augustine, Vincent ofBeauvais, Albertus Magnus and a host of others. Xo fact ofnatural history was more firmly attested. In earl}' Christiandays this subject was commonl\- depicted on the frescoes of theCatacombs and in very early mosaics, e.g., at S. Clemente, Rome.There were indeed variants and developments of the story.ElySometimes the stag is shewn killing the dragon by the breath ofhis nostrils; so by the breath of the Word, which is Christ, evilis destroyed. But more often an alternative method of ex-terminating dragons finds favour. This is based on a verse in the Psalms which deals with Natural History and therefore hadto be taken in account. David said, " The hart panteth after thewaterbrooks." This at once raises two questions, first. Why didthe hart pant? secondly. What did he want with water? It might be answered that he was thirsty and wanted to drink. Butwhy was he thirsty? Comparing the array of authorities quotedabove, the Physiologus convinced himself that the thirst suffered by the hart was caused by inhaling the fiery breath of dragons.The remedy evidently was to quench the dragon's fiery breathas soon as possible. Accordingly he went to a stream, filled his'11 1 1: i'iivsi()LO(;us 33stomach with water, and sqiiirtccl it into the hole till the draj^on was drowned out and emcrt4"ed from his lK;le to be slain by thehart. This strani^e subject is constantly shewn in the illustra- tions of the IJestiaries (20). On the bronze doors of the cathedralof Pisa the hart is seen by a stream of water. So also there is a hart beside a pool on the supporter of a misericord in Beverley Minster. In some cases the antlers of the hart appear to burj^eon into foliage. For this, as for the descri[)tion of theelephant, C;esar seems to be responsible. In his Conuiietitaries(vi. 27) he says, "There is an ox having the form of a deer;from the middle of his forehead between the cars there rises asingle horn, longer and straighter than the horns of any otheranimal \ve know, and spreading zvidely at the top in palm-likebranches!' There is yet another very important fact of naturalhistory about the hart which demanded ex[:)lanation. Hesheds his antlers every year; where does he get the new ones from? The answer is. He gets the material for his new antlers from eating dragons or serpents. On the supporter of an Elyinisericord a stag with foliated antlers is seen devouring a dragonheaded snake (32). Being from first to last in conflict with the])rincii)le of evil as embodied in dragons, the hart is a type ofChrist, slaying the principle of evil with the water and bloodwhich flowed from his side; of whom it is written in the Songof Solomon, " My beloved is like a roe or a young hart." When represented with a crucifix in his antlers, the referenceis to the huntsman saint of the Ardennes, St Hubert; there is a fine representation of this on the t}*mpanum of the doorwayof the chapel of St Hubert at Amboise. Being a quarry of thenoble, the hart is a favourite in heraldry. The White Hartof Richard II. may be seen in Westminster x^bbey in theMuniment Room and St Erasmus' chapel; and is the signof many inns. A chained hart is a badge of Henr)- \T. andothers.5. The AxXtelope.The nature of the antelope is that it has two powerful hornswith which it saws through trees and fells them. So the devil cannot stand up against the Old and New Testaments. Thebasis of the story may be that some species of antelopes haveserrated horns. Another fact about the antelope is that on thebanks of the Euphrates grow shrubs of pleasant savour; if theantelope gets his horns entangled in their branches, the hunters534 WOOD CAkVINOS IN KXGLISII CHUKCIIKS come up and kill him. So the liiblc avails not the Christianwho allows himself to be entanijled in the thickets of lust andpride and evil passions; hefalls an easy prey to the devil.The antelope is frequentlydepicted with his horns thuscntant^led in a thicket, whilehe is bein<^ attacked in therear by a hunter with axe orspear (20).The antclojje is commonin heraldr}-. In WestminsterAbbey an antelope sits atthe feet of the effigy ofMargaret Beaufort; and antelopes, collared and chained,occur on the frieze of Henrythe I^'ifth's chantr\' chapel.On a misericord at Limerickis an antelope, collared,with serrated horns (34); atLimerickLudlow is another, collared and chained.6. The Eagle.The Natural History of the eagle is based on three observedfacts —one, that it has a piercing and unflinching gaze; secondl}',that the sea-eagle lives on fish; thirdl)-, that eagles renew theirplumage after moulting; a peculiarit}', however, not confined toeagles. To these observations the Physiologus added Bibletexts. The following is the Latin account of the eagle.*" Dicit David in centesinio sccundo psalmo: Renovabitiir siiut aquilajuventus tua. Physiologus dicit de aquila talem habere naturam. Quumsenuerit, gravantur alae ipsius, et obduc*nt caliginem oculi ejus. Turnquaerit fontem aquae, et contra eum fontem evolat in altum usque ad aeremsolis; et ibi incendit alas suas: simul et caliginem oculorum e.xurit de radiosolis. Tum,demum descendens in fontem, trina vice se niergit; et statimrenovatur tota, et in alarum vigore et oculorum splendore multo meliusrenovatur."It is written, " Bless the Lord, O my soul, who satisfieth thymouth with good things so that tJiy youth is renewed like theeagle!' Therefore, he tells us, when the eagle has grown oldand its eyes are dim, it flies upward to the sun till it has purged* Cahier and Martin, ii. 166.TIM': I'livsini.odiis 35the film from its eyes; then plunt^es thrice into a spring ofpure water, when it recovers its sight and renews its youth (20).We also, when the vision of God is obscured, must fly on thewings of the spirit to the Sun of Righteousness; and must dipourselves thrice in the regenerating waters of baptism in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Ghost;so shall we be born again and shall ])ut on the shining raimentof the saints of God. Hence comes the magnificent imageryof Milton in the Arcopagitica: " Mcthinks I see in my mind a noble and puissant nation rousinj^ herselflike a strong man after sleep: methinks I see her as an eagle renewing her mighty youth, and kindling her undaz/.led eyes at the full midday beam; purging and unsealing her long-abused sight at the fountain itself of heavenlyradiance." Also the eagle can gaze at the bright sun without blinking, andcarries the eaglets on its wings upwards and compels themto look on the shining orb; those who can do so with steadfaste}-es it rears; but lets the others fall to the ground. So nonecati behold the face of God but Christ and His elect (20). Thisscene is illustrated in the I^estiaries,* and appears at Lyonscathedral in a painted window. Thirdly, the fishing eagle,jioised high in the air, plunges down into the sea and emergeswith a fish in its claws; the eagle is Christ, the sea is theworld, the fish is tlic Christian \\hom Christ takes into thenumber of His elect. This is represented in the baptistery ofS. Maria di Capua; on the jamb of a Norman doorway at Ribbcsford, Worcestershire; on a metal plate in the British Museum; on a Celtic cross at St Vigean's, Forfarshire; andin a Celtic illurninated manuscript in Trinity College, Dublin.fFrequently the eagle is the symbol of St John the Evangelist.Occasionally a double-headed eagle occurs; e.g., on misericordsat Boston, All Souls', Oxford, Whalle}' and W^orcester. Thespread eagle was the badge of the Holy Roman Empire. Thishas been thought to have reference to Elisha; for " it came topass, when the)' were gone over Jordan, that Elijah said untoElisha, Ask what I shall do for thee, before I be taken awayfrom thee. And Elisha said, I pray thee, let a double portionof thy spirit be upon me." Sometimes an eagle is carvedpreying on a hare; as on misericords in the ArchitecturalAssociation Museum, New College, Oxford, and Wells cathedral(108). This may refer to the hostility of the eagle to the hareas the emblem of incontinence; but may be merely a recordof woodland life, the eagle being a hawk or falcon. * Cahier and Alartin, ii., Plates 23 and 28, and Male, 56. + Evans, 118.36 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHES/, The Fox.The fox is one of the characters in the Pliysiologns; buthas not )-ct gathered round him the dehghtful stories whichwere subsequently t(j be embodied in the epic of Rey)iard theFox. " The fox," sa)-s the Latin Bestiary, " is a very craftyand cunning animal. When he is hungry and does not findanything to eat, he looks for a place with red soil, and rollson it till he seems to be all bloody, and holds in his breathtill he is quite swollen. Then, seeing him lying on his backall bloody and swollen, the birds think he is dead and settleon him to eat him. But the fox snaps them up." * Thisis the scene represented on the misericord in Chester cathedral(37); in the centre are the birds gaping at the fox, who lieson his back feigning to be dead; in the right supporter he hascome to life, and is gobbling up one of them. The same sceneis portra\'ed on the Alne doorwa}', and is inscribed VULPIS.The siguificatio, as given in an old English Bestiary, is that^' He who tells idle tales and indulges in carnal pleasures pecksat the skin of the fox and tears its flesh; but the de\il seizesthe sinner and drags him down to murky hell." Here is Philipde Thaun's version: " Li gupilz signefie Diable en ceste vie; A gent en earn vivant demustre mort semblant, Tant que en mal sunt entre, en sa buche enferre, Dune les prent en eslure, s'is ocit e desvure,Si cum li gupilz fait li oisel quant I'a atrait." t But what endeared the fox to everj'body, grown-up and ciiild alike, was a simple episode of farmyard life, told again andagain with ever renewed gusto. Chaucer's \ersion of it is givenin the tale of the nun's priest"This silly widow and eek her daughters two Did hear the hens cry out and maken woe; And out at doors started they all anon, And saw the fox toward the forest run, And bear upon his back the co*ck away; Then cried they 'Out I Harrow! and Wely-away I Ha 1 ha! the Fo.\! ' And after him they ran, And with their staves eek many another man.

• Latin MSS. A and B in Cahier and Martin.

t "The fox signifies the Devil in this life. To people living carnally heshews pretence of death, till they are entered into evil, caught in his mouth.Then he takes them by a jump and slays and devours them, as the fox does the bird when he has allured it." —Wright's PopiiIarTrcatiscs, 106.ChesterBeverley AlinsterCarlisle38 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHESRan Coll our do;^, and Talbot and (lailand,And Malkin uith a distaff in her hand; Ran cow and calf, and cek the very ]ioj,'s, So were they feared for barking of the dogs.They yelled as do the fiends yell down in hell; The ducks did cry as if men would them quell; The geese for fear did fly over the trees; Out of the hive came forth the swarm of bees." At Beverley Min.ster Dame Malkin i.s .seen running out ofher cottage after Reynard who has a fat goose on his back; on the right supporter he is feasting on the goose; on the left one two foxes are devising further villainy. At Ely the dameis belabouring a very small fox with a very big distaff. AtCarlisle are fox and goose magnificently carved, with thesmallest possible number of gouge strokes (37).8. The Whale.As regards the whale, there is a confusion of at least threecreatures; one is the Whale proper; another is the Leviathanor crocodile; usually it is the Cetus, Aspido Chclone or AspidoTestudo, a huge sea monster to which all three names are applied.Of the whale one nature is that he opens his mouth wideand a pleasing odour is exhaled and the little fish swim in, whereupon he closes his jaws and they are entrapped. There is of course a substratum of fact in the above characteristic of thewhale. It is described in gruesome language in an old EnglishBestiar\'" When him in the sea hunger afflicts, the water-ragcr proud, then his mouth opens,a pleasant odour comesfrom his inside, so that thereby other kinds of sea-fishes are deceived. Eager they swim towhere the sweet odour cometh out. There they enterin heedless shoal,till the wide jaw is filled then suddenly around the preytogether crashthe grim gums."The little fish are Christians who are led into vice by pleasingtemptations: but comes the da\' of death, and with it theDevil, and" When he his grim Hell's latticed doors have not gums dashes return nor escape,after the death-pang outlet everfast together, for those who enter." *Thorpe's Codex Exonicnsis^ 360.Till'; IMIVSIOLOCL'S 39Another nature of the whale is that he reinains stationary onthe surface of the water till his back is covered with sand, in which large forests i^row. Mariners land, cook their dinner as on an isle, when suddenly the monster sinks down and in a moment they are engulfed (20). The whale is again the devil. This also is finely described in the Bestiary:" Like is its aspect they hij^h fire kindle,to a rough rock; When feels so tliat imaLjinc the skilled in guile\va\efarers, that on him the voyagersthat on some island they firmly rest, gaze with their eyes, then suddenlyand tlicn fasten into the salt wave,the high-prow'd shijjs with the bark,to that false land down goeswith anchor-ropes. the ocean's guest. On that island seeks the abyss."For the dimensions of the whale there was warrant in thecreation of Leviathan, the vast Ci"ocodile, as set forth in the Bookof h^sdras: "Upon the fifth day didst thou preserve two living creatures; and onethou calledst Enoch, and the other thou calledst Le\ iathan. And thoudidst separate the one from the other; for the seventh part, namely, wherethe water was gathered together, might not hold them both. Unto Enochthou gavest one part, wherein are a thousand hills; but unto Le\iathan thougavest the seventh part, namely, the moist."' The whale rarely occurs on misericords; the artist no doubtfinding it impossible to give an idea of its scale. There is oneon a misericord at Bishop's Stortford; its rows of large teeth,however, look as if the carver knew more about sharks thanabout whales. A very fine whale is shewn on misericords at Ripon in connection with the story of Jonah (140).9. The Panther.The panther is a great fa\ourite with all beasts except thedragon, which may be seen on the Norman doorwax' at Alneand on a slab in the wall at Newton, Yorkshire, fl}'ingaway from him. The panther is a good beast; for Hoseasays, but only in the Septuagint translation, " I will be untoEphraim as a panther, and as a lion to the house of Judah."40 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CIIUKCUKSMoreover his breath was so fragrant that hosts of beasts fi)llo\\edhim, attracted by the aromatic odour," A steam more grateful Sweeter and strongerThan e\ery perfume,Than blooms of plantsAnd forest leaves." *Partly also they sought to be cured of their ailments by itshealing qualities. For it is written, " Draw me; we will runafter thee "

and " The smell of thine ointments is better than allspices "; and again, " Because of the savour of thy good oint-ments, thy name is as an ointment poured forth; therefore dothe virgins love thee" (Song of Solomon i. 3, 4, iv. 10). The breath of the panther is also likened to the virtue whichwent forth from Christ and healed the woman who touched thehem of His garment. The panther is a type of Christ, and itsvariegated skin of His wisdom, love, humility, mercy, justice andother attributes. The Natural History of the panther is plainly a variant ofthat of Pliny, viii. 17

" It is said that all four-footed beastsare wonderfully delighted and enticed b)- the smell of panthers;

. . . but when they have trained other beasts within their reachby their sweet savour, they fall upon them and worry them."In the illustration the animals are seen following the panther,all except the dragon, who is fl>'ing away from him (21).10. The Serpent,The Natural History of the serpent is concocted out ofvarious ingredients. First, the serpent annually sloughs itsskin; secondly, it dances to the music of the snake charmer; thirdly, it is poisonous; but, fourthly, it did not sting Adam andEve. In all which facts there are morals. First we are toldthat when it has grown old and its e\'es are dim, it squeezesitself through a narrow crevice in the rocks and casts its skin.So we also have to pass through the strait gate that leadethunto life. Secondly, some snakes are too wise to be charmed; being " deaf adders which stop their ears; which will nothearken to the voice of charmers, charming never so wisely"(Psalm Iviii. 5 and Jeremiah viii. 17). So Christians should* Thorpe's Codex Exom'ensis, p. 355.'iiN'sioi.ocr.s 41be deaf to the sugtj^estions of tlic evil one (41). Thirdl)', as thesnake, when it drinks, leaves its venom in the pool, so we mustleave behind all carnal sin when wc drink of the fountain ofeternal life. h\)urthl\', why did not the serpent sting Adam andICve? The only i:)ossible reason is that they were naked. Sonothing lays us open so much to the assaults of " that oldserpent, the devil" as clothes and other such vanities of theworld. The subject of the Temptation was a very great favouritein ecclesiastical art. But it presented a serious difficult)' to theartist For though the tempter is described in the Book of(lenesis as a serpent, he holds a long conversation with Eve, asif he were a human being. Some therefore represented himAttenborouuhmerely as a serpent; others made him a serpent with a humanhead, as may be seen on misericords at Worcester (131) andK\y (130). Here are some rather good Sapphics on the wa)'sof serpents" Ouacrit angustum lapidis foramen, Vix movens sese venicnsque tandem; Inde pertransit, spoliatque carnemPelle vetusta. "Si virum quemquam sine vcste spectat, Longius serpens ut ab iyne cessat; At videns ilium qui fert amictumSurgit in ipsum." *

• Harleian MS. in Appendix to Morris' Old English Miscellany. 6

42 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHESII. The Beaver.This animal secretes in two inguinal sacs a caseous substancewith a pungent perfume, called castofeiun, good for epileptic fits. For this the hunters chase it. So the beaver bites off the sacsand throws itself on its back to shew that there is nothing worthchasing it for. Which things are an allegor\-. " Do thou, O man,separate from thyself the works of the flesh, and throw them tothe devil who hunteth after thy soul." The Natural History ofthe beaver, like that of the hart, is backed up by very weightyauthorities, including Pliny, /Elian, Apuleius and Juvenal. Abeaver is said to occur on one of the elbow rests and on amisericord at St George's, Windsor.12. Thi: Hyena.This foul creature is represented, correctly enough, dis-embowelling a corpse; it signifies vice battening on corruption(21). Many other strange things are said about the hyena bythe P/ifsioIogns. The h\-ena occurs at Carlisle (43) and Alne.13. The Otter.This creature is the enemy of the crocodile. The latter sleepswith its mouth open; the otter rolls in the mire till he is cakedwith mud, which he lets dry till it is hard; then he runs downthe throat of the crocodile and gnaws a way out through hisbowels. The same is reported of the IcJniciivicnon. But sincethe Greek for " otter," ewSpi^^ also means " water snake," byadiseased etymology the creature is often represented as a serpenthalf in, half out the belly of a monster which the artist imaginesto be a crocodile (21). In which case, like Jonah issuing fromthe whale's mouth, it is a symbol of the Resurrection. For theremarkable nature of the otter Pliny, ^-Elian and Plutarch arevouchers (43).*

• -See Mr Driice's monograph on the Crocodile in A7-cha'ologicalJour7ial^June, 1910.

TlIK rilYSIOLO(;US 43Carlisle14. The Lizard.When the h'/ard grows old and its sight fails, it puts its headout of a crevice of the wall towards the eastern sun and regainsits sight. So the dayspring shall arise to us with healing in its wings. Representations of a lizard running along a wall or peeping out of some chink in it, cither sculptured in stone or carved in wood, occur in medi;uval chancels, emblematic of theilluminating influence of the gospel.*

• Evans, 94.

Chichester44 WOOD CARVINCS IN ENGLISH C 1 1 LKCII KS15. Tin; Dove.A \cr)' curious and widespread belief associates the dovewith the Incarnation. First we are to note that "The Wordwas made flesh," And at the Annunciation the \'irgin hadrepHed to the angel Gabriel "Fiat mihi secundum vcrbumtuum." But words are spoken to the ear. Therefore, saysSt Augustine, " Deus per angelum loquebatur ct \'irgo peraurem imprcgnabatur." * Another aspect of the dove is renderedon a misericord at Ely; in the centre is seen Noah leaning outof the Ark; the sinister supporter is a dove with a branch inits mouth; the dexter is a raven feeding on a dead bullockfloating in the waters (134). Now the Ark is a symbol of God'sChurch tossed about in the tempestuous waters of the world.Therefore the dove symbolises the Christian who enters theChurch, whereas the raven feeding on dead carrion symbolisesthe Jew who refuses to enter, and adheres to the deadceremonial of the Law. In the same wa)- the hyena, feedingon the dead, is a s)-mbol of the Jews.16. The Raven.Its first characteristic —true to nature—is that the ravenpicks out the e\es of sheep and lambs. This is shewn on theright supporter of the misericord at Ely (134). Another characteristic is that, like certain other birds, young ravens are longin getting their feathers. The result is, says Physiolo^iis, thattheir parents do not know them, and neglect them. Whereforethey cry unto God, and " He giveth food to the young ra\enswhich cry " (Psalm cxhii. 9). \Vhat sort of food is it? Naturallyit is a shower of manna, such as fell on the Israelites in thewilderness. It is shewn in illustrations in the Bestiaries fallingon a nest full of young ravens (21).17. The Pelican.The touching s)-mbol of the " lY-lican in her pietx-"-'- is exceedingly common both in religious and heraldic art. The* In three manuscripts in the Bodleian the dove is spoken of respectivelyas Coliiiiiba Crisii, Columba DuT'id ^nd Colitniha Xoc. —(i. C. D.t This expression appears to be purely heraldic and not to occur inecclesiastical art. —G. C. D.Till', I'ilYSlOLOCiUS 45massive brass lectern in Norwich cathedral rejjresents thepelican fcedini;- her youni^ with her blood; it occurs in endlessprofusion in the bosses of vaults, in stained j^lass, on misericords{e.g., Ely, Cartmel, Lavenham, l^evcrley Minster ('45), and else- where). It was the emblem of good Bishop Vox. of Winchester; it appears in his great stone reredos in Southwark cathedral,as a cresting on his chantry chapel in Winchester cathedral,and on the top of a column in the centre of the quadrangleBeverley Minsterof Corpus Christi College, Oxford, which he founded. Theversions of the legend of the pelican \ary slightly; sometimesshe is represented as feeding her young ones with her blood; sometimes as restoring them to life. The one particle ofgenuine natural history in the legend is the fact that whenthe pelican is pluming her feathers, it is seen that at the tipof her bill there is a crimson spot. This of course has to beaccounted for. The following is the explanation given by46 WOOD CARVINGS IN KNGLISII CIIUKCIIKSSt Augustine in his commentary on Psalm cii. 6, " I am likea pelican in the wilderness ": "The males of these birds are wont to kill their young by blows of theirbeaks, and then to bewail their death for the space of three days. At lengthhowever the female intlicts a severe wound on herself, and letting her bloodflow over the dead young ones, brings them to life again."This was superseded by the more elaborate story which apj^earsin the Physiologus." Dicit David in psalmo ci. 'Simile factus sum pellicano solitudinis.'Physiologus dicit de pellicano quoniam amator filioruni nimis est. Quumautem genuerit natos, et cocpeiint crescere, percutiunt parentes suos in faciem. Parentes autem rcpercutiuntes eos, occidunt filios suos. Tertiavero die mater eorum, percutiens costam suam aperit latus suum, et incunibitsuper pullos suos, et infundit sanguinem suum super corpora mortuorumfiliorum; et sic sanguine suo suscitat eos a mortuis. Ita et Dominus nosterJesus Christus per Esaiam prophetam (i. 2) dicit ' Filios genui et e.xaltavi; ipsi vero me spreverunt.' . . . Idcirco ascendit Dominus noster JesusChristus in altitudinem crucis, et percusso latere ejus exiit sanguis et aquain salutem nostram et vitam aeternam." This version makes the children first strike the parents, whothereupon slay them; and a more elaborate symbolism follows; viz., that Christ was buffeted and scourged at His trial and waspierced with a spear on the cross, and from His side flowed theblood which redeemed from death the children of men. In amore general sense the pelican became the symbol of self-sacrificing love. In stained glass the pelican is often depictedin connection with representations of the crucifixion. Oftentoo the pelican and phtenix are associated; the former .s)-mbolising Christ's death, the latter His resurrection. A In-mn ofSt Thomas Aquinas speaks of Our Lord as a pelican:" Pie Pellicane, Jesu domine. Me immundum munda tuo sanguine."" Most loving Pelican, Jesu Lord and God,Cleanse me unclean with Thy most cleansing blood." Dante too calls Christ " Nostro pelicano." Shakespeare revivesthe ancient tradition in Hamlet, iv. 5: "And like the kind, life-rendering pelican. Refresh them with my blood." Here and there the pelican continues to be an inn sign, as atSpeenhamland, of which Jekyl made complaint:"The Pelican at SpeenhamlandThat stands below the hill ]\Iay well be called the Pelican From his enormous bill."Till': I'livsioi.ocus 471 8. TiiK Owl.The Natural llistor)' of the owl is correct cnouL;h as far as it t^oes. What it amounts to is that the barn owl catches mice, as appears on a misericord at K\y; and that the owl's eyes are adapted for night work, and she cannot see well by day, and is often mobbed by a crowd of impudent little birds; on themisericord at Ely the little birds appear in the supporters, as on that at Gloucester, in which she is surrounded by four chatter- ing little birds. The mobbing of the owl is also well seen in Norwich cathedral (47) and Beverley Minster. We are accus- tomed to regard the intensely grave look of the owl as a signNoiwicliof wisdom; but to the ecclesiastical zoologist she was not a wisebird at all, but very foolish, because she "loved darkness ratherthan light." This symbolised the Jews, who were blind to "thedaj'spring from on high." The blindness and stupidity of theJews was a stock article of faith. On the fourteenth centurydoorway in Rochester cathedral is a figure, which is blindfoldedto shew that it represents the Synagogue or the Jewish Church.In a Latin poem earlier than the twelfth century the identifica- tion of the owl with the Jews is so complete that Christ is saidto " have been put to death " by owls; " Christus a noctnis datursupplicio." The owl is so decorative a subject that she appearsvery frequently on misericords; she is present at the hanging ofthe cat at Malvern (191).48 WOOD CARVINGS IX ENGLISH CHURCHES19. The Swallow.The swallow was believed by everybody to hibernate allwinter, and naturally became a symbol of the Resurrection. Itwas acutely noted by Luther that the statement of Genesis i. 21that "the waters brought forth every win<;ed fowl " was exemplified every spring when the swallow reappeared after its wintersojourn in the water.20. The Partridge.This little bird is curiously misused. It is the husband of onewife, and not onl\' brings up its own family well but adopts anyorphans that ma}' be about. But the J^Iivsiologiis knows better.Following the prophet Jeremiah, who had written that " thepartridge gatliereth young which she hath not brought forth,"we are told that partridges steal the eggs of other birds andhatch them; but when the young are grown, they fly to theirreal parents, leaving their self-constituted foster-mother lookinglike a fool. So the devil gathers to himself the children of men; but when they have come to a knowledge of the truth, theyforsake the devil and his works and flee to their natural mother,the Church.One way to depict this subject was to represent the partridgesitting in her nest, while her foster chicks are flying up into theair to join their real mother. For the Natural History of thepartridge there is onl\' scriptural warrant; Pliny, yElian andthe rest are not in this instance res[)onsible (21).49CHAPTER IVTHE PHYSIOLOGUS {continued)Imaginary Birds and Bkasts and Fishes2 1. The Unicorn.Such arc a few of the characters of the "moral beasts." But the naturalist by no means confined himself to thebeasts that are. I^>.ekiel in his prophecies, St John in theApocal\-pse had depicted weirdest shapes. So also thePhysiologits has a menat^erie of strani^e creatures that never were on land or sea. Here are a few of them. We beginwith the unicorn.Two creatures are confounded in most descriptions of theunicorn, the Monoceros and the Unicorn; both the names mean" he that hath a single horn," the former being Greek, the latter Latin. In the Bestiary they are applied to quite distinct animals." Monoceros is a great beast with a terrible bellow, the bodyof a horse, the feet of an elephant, a tail very like that of a stag; it has a horn in the middle of its forehead, which projects with an astonishing magnificence to the length of four feet, and it is so sharp, that anything that it strikes is easily pierced by theblow. It does not come alive into man's power, and it can bekilled indeed, but it cannot be captured (alive)." This is thedescription given of it in a thirteenth century MS. (3244) in theHarleian collection in the British Museum; that in the HarleianMS. 4751 is practicall}' the same. Of the Monoceros thecreatures at VVestwell, Kent, and Be\'erle}' Minster (50) are examples, as in other cases where it appears b}' itself. TheUnicorn proper is the one which occurs in fights with elephantsand in the s)'mbolism of the Incarnation. Of the Unicorn i\IS. 3244 writes: "The Unicorn which is also called Rhinoceros bythe Greeks has this nature; it is a small animal like a kid; it is most exceedingly swift; having one horn in the middle of its head and no hunter is able to capture it, but it is taken by this7so WOOD CARVINC.S IN EN(;LISH CIIURCHF.SBeverley Minsterdevice."* The mode of capture is unsportsmanlike. "Thehunters place a virgin near to the spot where it has its abode.When the unicorn sees her. it runs to her and lies down, placingits head in her lap, doing her no harm. Then come the huntersand kill it" (50). The unicorn is a type of Our Lord; for " Hehath raised up a horn of salvation for us "

moreoxer the might}-ones of the world were unable to lay hold of Him, until He hadabode in the womb of the Blessed Virgin. Here is the Latinsig7iificatio of the legend

* I am indebted to Mr G. C. Druce for these two translations fromthe Bestiary.

ChesterTill'; i'ii\-si()L{)(;us I"Sic et Doiiiinus nosier Jesus ChiisUis, spiritualis unicornis, descendensin utcrum virginis, per carneni ex ea sumptam captus a Judacis niortc crucis damnatus est. De quo David dicit, Et diiectus sicul filius unicorniuni. Etrursus in alio psalnio ipse de se dicit, Et exaltabitur sicul unicornis cornumcuni. Et Zacharias dicit, Suscitavit cornu salutis nostrae in domo Davidpueri sui." To this it is to be added that the sini^le h(jrn symboh'sed the oneness of the Father and the Son. " Likewise," the Physiologusij^oes on, "if she be not a pure maid, the imicorn will not sleep,but killeth the damsel who is not pure." The unicorn thereforeis also a symbol of chastity. Another method of capturing theunicorn adopted both by huntsmen and by his enemy, the lion, was to retreat behind a tree; whereupon the unicorn char'^cdCartmelthe tree, and his horn piercing it, he was held fast. Thismethod was known to Shakespeare, who says that Caesar" loves to hear That unicorns may be betrayed with trees. And bears with glasses, elephants with holes. Lions with toils, and men with tiatterers." This mode of capture is depicted at Cartmel (51). Accordingto the Bestiary there was also great war between the unicornand the elephant; for says the PJiysiologns^ " the unicorn often has a fight with elephants, and wounds one in the belly andlays him low." The Unicorn and Virgin are often represented. There is an52 WOOD CAKVINC.S IN ENGLISH CHURCHESelaborate carvint^ in wood in Breslau cathedral; * it occurs instained glass in the cathedrals of Bourges, Erfurt and L}-ons,and at St Redegonde, Caen; and on a late Gothic capital ofSt Pierre, Caen. In English work it is seen on misericords,twice in Beverley Minster, and once in the cathedrals ofChester, Ely, Lincoln, Manchester, and in Boston church, andformerly in the church of St Pcter-pcr-Mountcrgate, Norwich; in Hargreave church, Suffolk, is a wooden unicorn. As wehave seen, the unicorn is a symbol of Christ, and therefore isrepresented on misericords at Windsor and Durham castlechapel (52), trampling on a human-headed dragon or snake, inallusion to the Psalmist's words, "Thou shalt tread upon theiJiirham Castlelion and adder; the young lion and the dragon shalt thoutrample under feet." The enmity of the unicorn, the symbol of Christ, for theroaring lion which is the adversary, the de\il, was depicted longbefore Christian days. In an Egyptian papyrus in the BritishMuseum a lion and unicorn are seen pla}-ing at draughts; thelion has won and has picked up the money, much to the surpriseof the disgusted unicorn; the re{)resentation is of the periodof the Roman occujjation of Eg}-pt. On a stone coffin,c. 1200, at Clapton, Northants, a unicorn is seen attacking alion, who has seized the unicorn's horn in his mouth. The lionand unicorn appear on misericords in Lincoln Minster and StGeorge's, Windsor. Two unicorns were supporters of the* Described by Mrs Jameson in Legends of the Madofifta, 170TiiK i'iivsi(M,()(;us 53Scottisli crown; after the union of Scotland with l,n_L;lan(l the lin^lisli lion, dexter, and the Scotch unicorn, sinister, becameand remain the su[)[:)ortcrs of the arms of England.Wlience came this deep seated belief in the unicorn? l^artly no doubt it arose in I'^gypt from reports brought by hunters ofthe rhinoceros. In Northern Europe it was backed up by actual horns, which were, however, those of the narwhal, an inhabitantof the Arctic seas, with a single horn from 7 to lo feet long.Pliny is responsible to a large extent as usual for the popularisation of the story. " The unicorn," he says, " is a very fierce beast, with the head of a stag, the feet of an elephant, tail of aboar, and the rest of it like a horse, which has a deep roar, andhas a single black horn projecting two cubits from the centre of its forehead; it is rept^rted that it cannot be captured alive." The Christian unicorn is generally fashioned like a horse; butsometimes he is a composite beast, following l'lin}-'s descriptionword for word; e.g:, in the Alexandcrlied oS. Pfaffen Lamprecht.*E.xtraordinary value was attached to the unicorn's horn as an antidote for poison. Of it were made test-spoons for poison,drinking cups and salt cellars, man)- of which may now be seenin museums. A narwhal's or unicorn's horn was regarded as one of the chiefest treasures of Windsor castle. When reducedto powder, to be mixed with water and taken in case ofpoisoning, it fetched an enormous price. At Florence unicorn'shorn was sold at £2a, per oz., when gold fetched £2. 3s. 6d. peroz.; in the time of our Queen Mary it was a recognised article of import, and there was a duty on it of 20s. per oz.f22. The Sala^[ander.The Salamander is a large lizard, the character of which is to put out fire by passing into it, its skin having the propertiesof asbestos. Thus it s\-mbolises the Christian who passes un- scathed through the fires of passion. There was Biblical warrantfor the fable. Ananias, Azarias and Misael had come forth froma burning fier}' furnace, with no smell of fire on their garments.The prophet Isaiah had said, " When thou walkest through fire, thou shalt not be burned." And St Paul wrote, "Through faith they stopped the mouths of lions and quenched the violence offire." Here again the Natural History consists of a superposition

• Evans, no.

t In the Archcroloniccxl Journal^ vol xli., is a paper by Rev. J. Hirst on "The Symbolism oi^ the Unicorn.'54 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHESof Scripture on Pliny, who says that " the salamander is a sort oflizard, which seeks the hottest fire to breed in, but quenches it with the extreme frigidit)- of its body," The salamander wasthe device of the French king, Francis I., and was carved in great profusion on his palaces.23. The Re.mora.This is a fish only a foot long; but when it attaches itself b\'its suckers to the keel, a ship cannot move. This was a usefulproperty in a storm. The ship as usual is the Church, whichOur Lord prevents from capsizing when tempest-tossed. Hereagain the story has no support except from authority, which,however, is of the weightiest. /Elian, Oppianus, Plin)-, Suetoniusand other writers, both Greek and Roman, delight in tellinganecdotes of the powers of the remora. The remora, or as it is called in Greek, the ccheneis (" He that stops the ship") wasworshipped at Cnidus because when Fcriander was about tosend a galley from Corinth to Corc)Ta to murder three hundredchildren, a great number of these fish fixed their suckers on thekeel, so that the galley could not sail. On a certain voyage ofthe Emperor Caligula, a remora attached itself to the imperialgalley and neutralised the efforts of four hundred rowers. AndActium was reported to have been lost because a remora stuckto Antony's galley and prevented it from going into action.*24. The Charadkius.This is a most remarkable plover. This is how it is describedin a Latin Bestiary: f" Item est volatile qui dicitur caladrius. Physiologus dicit de hoc quiatotus albus est, nuUani partem habens nigram. Si quis est in aegritudineconstitutus, ex hoc caladrio cognoscitur si vivat aut moriatur. Si ergo est infirmitas hominis ad mortem, mox ut viderit infirmum, avertit faciem suamab eo caladrius, et omnes cognosc*nt quia moriturus est. Si auteminfirmitas ejus pertinuerit ad vitam, intendit in faciem ejus caladrius, et assumit omnem aegritudinem hominis intra se; et volat in aera contrasolem, et comburit infirniitatem ejus et dispergit eam; et erit salvusinfirmus." The bird is white, without a dark spot on it. When a person is sick, it is brought to his bedside to determine whether he will* Evans, 125. t Cahier and Martin, ii. 30.TiiK i'iivsiuL()(;u.s 55recover. If the sickness is unto death, the bird turns away fromhim. But if he is to Hve, the charach'ius looks steadfastly in his face, as is depicted on the doorway at Alne, and draws themalady out of him. Then it flics away to the sun with thebacteria of disease that they may be burnt up and consumed.So Christ turned His face awa)' from the Jews, but had respectunto the Gentiles, and lifts up the light of His countenance uponthem so that ihcy be safe (21).*25. The co*ckatrice or Basilisk.There exists a harmless little lizard which frightens its neighbours by puffing up the conical crest on its head. Out ofthis was developed one of the strangest of all mediaeval monsters —^the co*ckatrice, whose life history was devoutly believed andrecounted by Hermes Trismegistus, Pope Gregory, the Venerablel^ede and a host of others. The manner of its generation is thuswise. It is hatched from the o.^^ of a co*ck seven years ofa*ge, which q%^ is laid in the warmth of a dunghill, and there it is incubated by a serpent or a toad. When the period is accomplished, there comes forth a creature with the body and tail of areptile, but in other respects it is like a co*ck. So terrible is thelittle creature that the most venomous serpent flies before him.Hence it is called " Little King," \\mTi\'uTKo<i or Basilisk. Nosooner is it born than it hides itself Such is its nature that if a man sees it before it sees him, it will die; but if it sees him first, he will fall down dead. It darts poison from its eyes and kills birds flying. Whosoever wishes to slay a basilisk holds beforehis face a crystal vessel; this not only arrests the venom, butcauses it to be reflected and cast back upon the animal, which is thus killed by the recoil. Such being the qualities of the creature, one reads with new force the words of Isaiah, " The suckingchild shall play on the hole of the asp, and the weaned child shall put his hand on the co*ckatrice's den " (xi. 8). And " They hatchco*ckatrices' eggs; he that eateth of their eggs dieth, and that which is crushed breaketh out into a viper" (lix. 5); also, "Outof the serpent's root shall come forth a co*ckatrice" (xiv. 29).Moreover Jeremiah says," Behold, I will send serpents, co*ckatrices,among you, which will not be charmed, and the}- shall bite you,saith the Lord " (viii. 17). A famous story of the powers of theco*ckatrice is told in the Gesta Rovianoruvi.

• Evans, 145.

$6 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CIIURCHKSAlexander was a mighty Emperor in the city of Rome and besieged acity of the kings of Egypt, in time of which besieging he lost many knightsand many of his host, and that without wounds he knew not how, butsuddenly every day they fell down dead. Alexander had thereof greatwonder, and great heaviness withal; and therefore he let be brought to himphilosophers, that were wise and expert in divers sciences; and he said to them, "Good masters, I jjray you shew me how it is that my men diesuddenly without any stroke or hurting." " ,Sir," cjuoth one, " it is no marvel,for there is a co*ckatrice within the wall; and as oft lime as she hath anysight of your men, they be dead through the venom that passcth from hereye." Then said .Alexander, " Is there no remedy against that sorry Heast?""Yea," c|uoth they, "a good remedy. Set a bright mirror well polishedbetween your host and the co*ckatrice; and then, when she look forth, sheshall look in the glass, and her own beholding shall bow and pass back to her again, and she shall die and our men shall be saved from death." TheExeterEmperor did as the philosopher counselled him; and so anon, when themirror was set up, the co*ckatrice was slain, and they entered into the cityand won it. The account of the co*ckatrice has special interest as shewinghow such m\'ths i^rew up. The story be^^ins honestl}' enoughwith a genuine bit of observation of animal Hfe; then thezoologist looks up the word "co*ckatrice" in the " Cruden'sConcordance of the day, and blends together as skilfully as hecan the scientific and the Biblical account. The real troublebegins when he has to point a moral. But he rises to theoccasion. The co*ckatrice of course is the devil; and there wasno way b}- which Our Lord could combat his maleficent influenceexcept b}- entering a vessel clearer than crystal, the bod}' ofTIN'; IMIVSIOLOOUS 57 Our Lad}', purest of virLjiii.s.* On misericords at MaKerii andWorcester are co*ckatrices. On a thirteenth century example at Exeter a co*ck confronts a co*ckatrice; the asp and basih'sk (jccurtogether at Amiens; Mr G. C. Uruce suggests, probably correctly,that the Exeter group represents the mode of generation ofthe creature, the co*ckatrice on the left being hatched from thecgQ of the seven years old co*ck on the right. A co*ckatrice is carved on a bench end at Stowlangtoft, Norfolk. A very fine example is seen on a misericord in Henry the Seventh's chapel,as sinister supporter to a Phcenix; the dexter supporter is broken, and may also have been a co*ckatrice. Shakespearehas an allusion to the basilisk in his play of Hairy the Sixth,2, iii. 2: " Come, basilisk, And kill the innocent gazer with thy sight."26. The Barnacle.Of course the fable of the barnacle finds place in the Bestiary.Barnacles are geese which hang by their beaks from the branchesof trees on the shore till they are covered with feathers anddrop. If they drop into the water, they live; if they fall on dry land, they die. They illustrate the saving efficacy ofBaptism (21).27. The Tekrobuli.But all these marvels fade before the terrobuli; which, beingstones, are nevertheless male and female. So long as they are kept apart, they are cold as other stones; but flames burst out if they are brought together. " Therefore, ye men of God, separateyourselves from women." Plin)^ appears responsible for this piece of Natural History. The terrobuli are generally repre- sented as busts with a blazing fire between them, e.g., at Alne.The Norman sculptures of the doorway of this church areparticularly valuable, since the names are attached to eachgroup. The word seems to be a corruption of '* p)'roboli," i.e., firestones (TivpofSoXoL XlOoi)(2i).

• See Evans, 165, who illustrates a capital in the abbey church of Vezelay, on which is carved a combat between a co*ckatrice and a figure mounted

on a dragon and holding in front a crystal mirror.58CHAPTER VTHi: PHVSIOLOGUS {continued)Composite MonstersA LARGE number of the beasts of the ecclesiastical menageriewere made up b\' blending together parts of various creaturesinto a new whole, as had been done on a vast scale with thecomposite animals of Egypt, Assyria and Persia; there wasplenty of warrant for these too in E^^ekiel and the Apocalypse.Of all the composite beasts the most effective, decoratively, werethe Dragon, the Griffin, the Wyvern and the Lindworm; and forthat reason perhaps the}- occur with exceptional frequcnc)'.28. The Dragon.Of these, ecclesiastically, the most important was the dragon; the pages of Scripture abound with dragons; unfortunatels', theBiblical descriptions are by no means consistent; one cannoteven tell whether the dragons lived on land or in the water. Earmore commonl}-, the_\- are spoken of as land animals, who dwellwith the owls in the wilderness. On the other hand David sa\-sin the Psalms, " Thou breakest the heads of the dragons in thewaters "

and Ezekiel says, " Thus saith the Lord God, Behold,I am against thee, Pharaoh King of Egypt, the great dragon thatlieth in the midst of his rivers . . . but I will put hooks in thyjaws, and I will bring thee up out of the midst of the rivers "

here the allusion certainl)- is to the crocodile; for the Bestiarypoints out, quite correctly, that it is not so much dangerous withits teeth as from its habit of lashing out with its tail. As for theland dragon, he is described in the Apocalypse (xii. 3 and xiii. i) as "a great red dragon having seven heads and ten horns."Moreover we learn from Deuteronomy (xxxii. t^^"}^ that his breathwas poisonous, for it is written, " Their wine is the poison ofdragons and the cruel venom of asps." Here the creature is

THE I'lIYSIOLOGUS 59a snake, not a crocodile or a (iua(lru[^e(l. To make matters still more confiisin<j^, there was an indii^enous draj^on, of Teutonicorit^in, depicted with great frcciuency in Anijlo-Saxon manuscripts and other works of art, who differed altoi^ethcr from thedrat^on of the Apocalypse. The artists had to make their choicethen between native tradition and the JMble, and in this case they voted against the Bible. It became a canon that a dragonshould have, not the seven heads of the dragon of the Apocalypse,but only one head. Medi.eval folk had personal knowledge ofdragons; many a district had been ravaged b)' them, such as that of Tarascon, where a model of the dragon still exists and is carried round the town in procession every year.* As all thedragons they knew had but one head, the dragon of art wasCartinelgiven but one head, the Bible notwithstanding. In heraldry thetype of dragon was standardised. He was made a quadruped,thereby being differentiated from the wyvern and lindworm,which were bipeds. He was given the wings of a bat; andhis tail is serpentine, because the dragon was " that oldserpent "

he has a fancy head, that of a beast of pre}', with

long ears. His characteristics are well seen on a misericordat Cartmel C59); and he is superbly drawn on one at INIan- chester, fighting a lion (23). He was a great nuisance to elephants.

• At Ghent is a copper dragon 10 feet long, reputed to be part of the

spoils of Constantinople by Baldwin of Flanders; in reality it was made in Ghent in 1377.6o WOOD CAKVIN(;S IN ENGLISH CHURCHESThe following is Pliny's account. "The elephant's blood is exceeding cold, and therefore the dragons be wonderful desirous thereof to refresh and cool themselves therewith, during the i)arching and hot season of the year; and to this purpose they lie under the water waiting the time to takethe elephants at a vantage when they are drinking, when they catch fast hold of their trunk, and they have no sooner clasped and entangled it withtheir tail, but they set their venomous teeth in the elephant's ear and bite it hard. Now these dragons are so big withal that they be able to receive all an elephant's blood. Thus the elephants are sucked dry until they fall downdead. And the dragons, being drunken with their blood, are squeezed underthem and both die together."The earlier part of Pliny's description, like that of Ezekiel, is plainly reminiscent of the crocodile; but he blends with it characteristics of the python.mTHE I'lIVSIOLOGUS 6iis compounded of the noblest of birds and the noblest of beasts. Decoratively, he is an exceedingly valuable motif; a fine example is seen on a miseri- cord at Cartmel, flanked bytwo grotesques (60). In heraldry the male griffin maybe distinguished by the possession of two straight hornsand a beard, as at Cartmel,and sometimes has spikes in- stead of wings. The examplefrom a misericord at Limerick(61) is probably intended for a female griffin. Male griffins are seen in xAlexander's flight to heaven (page 78). AtBeverley St Mary two griffins are guarding apparently the Tree of Life; two friskingrabbits below give animationto the scene (61). The griffinis reputed in an old Norman-French Bestiary to be so strong that he can fly away with an ox: " Cil oisel sont si fors que il prennentben I bucf tot vif et s'envolent atot." The vast size of themerickBeverley St Marygriffin was attested by the specimens of his horns preservedin the treasuries of medi;^ival churches, e.g., Hildesheim and62 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHESthe Dresden and \'icnna museums. Being, as a matter of fact, horns of the Califrarian buffalo, they are very large, and thegriffin to whom they were presumed to belong would be avery big beast indeed. The griffin is an ancient crest of theCity of London, and one still ramps on the site of Temple Bar.30. The VVvvern.This beast differs from the dragon chiefly in having only twolegs; he has a beast's head, an eagle's leg and claws, and aCarlisleserpent's tail, which latter has sometimes a ridge of knobs,like that of a crocodile; i\^., at Limerick; he has bat's wingslike the dragon. He is a great favourite on misericords, probablybecause it was easier to get in a two-legged wyvern than a four- legged dragon. Most of the story of the dragon seems to havebeen applied also to the wyvern; thus on misericords at Limerick, Worcester, and Carlisle (62) he is in combat with lions; at Beverley St Mary he is attacked b\' St George on horseback,at Beverley Minster b)' a wodehouse with club and shields. At Beverley St Mar\s two sturdy w\'verns turn aside, howling,from the clubs of two wodehouses. In the same church a wodehouse with a club tramples on the heads of two writhing wyverns,symbolising the triumph of Christ over the devil; the wodehouseTlIK I'llVSlOI.OGUS 63is llankcd by two lions —in this case takini,^ the side of i'i<(htcous- ness—who pat iiiin on the back (15); the hairiness of thewodehoiise is rendered quite sim])ly by a lattice pattern. The(|uality of the carvini^ of these varies of course immensely, fromthe verve of such work as that at Carlisle (62) to the villagecarpenter's attempt at a wyvern on a misericord at Weston-inGordano, where, however, the artist has introduced a pleasing\\Vblun-in-(".or(Ianovariation by giving the beast a head to look backward with aswell as one with which to look forward; and by providing thelatter with the barbed tongue of a serpent (63).I. TlIK LiNDWURM.When a wyvern has no wings, as at Limerick, he is, in heraldry, a lindvvorm. The Limerick one has the horns of theibex or the antelope. But no rigid distinction can be madebetween the dragon, wyvern, and lindworm; evidently their characteristics are to a large extent interchangeable at thepleasure of the artist.64 WOOn CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHES32 Various Beasts.Time fails to tell of the many other curiosities of ecclesiasticalzoolog}-; the Porp/tyn'oii* with one foot like that of a partridge,and the other webbed like that of a goose; the Lcoiiccrotc, off-spring of hj'cna and lioness, with the body of an ass, the legsof a deer, and the head of a camel, and armed with terriblefangs; and the TJiaranda^ which has the shape of the ox andthe fur of the bear, and changes colour like the chameleon; theManticora, insatiable of human flesh, with the face of a man, theJAII Saints', HerefordAll Saints', Hereford66 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENC.I.ISII CIR'KCIIKShead at each end, and in the Ik'stian- these heads are sliewnconfrontini]^ one another in close proximity (64). In some cases, e.g., on the misericords of All Saints', Hereford, the artist seems to have gone to the minor fauna for motifs,producing renderings, with detail of his own, of rats, mice,weevils, woodlice and other small deer (65).^7PART II" Qiiidquid agunt JioDuncs, I'otinii, fiiiior, irn^ i<ohipi(XS, Gaiidia, disci/rsi/s, nosiri cs/ farnn^v /ibcl/i.CHAPTER VITRAVELLERS' TALESAnother source of zoological iii.spirati(/n was to be foundin travellers' tales. These were to be found in abundance in Greek and Latin literature, in Ctesias, Pliny and others; andwere capped by narratixes of mcdi;eval travellers, equallyunveracious and acceptable. INLan}- a one, like Othello, told of"Cannibals that do each other eat, The Anthropopha.Eji, and men whose heads Do grow beneath their shoulders"or on their navels. There were stories too, more or less well founded, of pigmies and other strange characters, both humanand animal. These too found their way to the carver's bench,giving us creatures which are carved with such vraisemblance,that it might seem they really existed. Such are the delightful pigmies on misericords in the Architectural AssociationMuseum (68), and the sciapod on a medallion of the facade ofSens cathedral, l}'ing on his back and sheltering himself fromthe sun b}- lifting up a foot as big as an umbrellaFurther inspiration was to be found in the stories of monstrousbirths. A calf could not be born with five legs or a couple ofheads without the most sinister prognostications. Classical scholars who have not forgotten their Livy know how Romequaked at such occurrences. Hence that hideous monster, theMonk C(7//,A.\). 1522 (69); hence probabK- another extraordinar\'Lynn St Xichola-^^travelli:rs talks 69freak, the J\rpal ^Iss {6ci). Weird creatures also were reportedto have been caught at sea; e.g., the Sea Bishop, A,D. 1453, withmitre, crosier and dahnatic. A venerable grey seal could not poke its head up out of the Baltic but it was promptly dubbeda Mcnita)! or Mciiiioiik. Incredible, nowadays, the state of mind may seem \\'hichinvented or believed such a farrago of nonsense. ]^ut the wholeworld was inconceivably credulous and uncritical, in theologyand science alike; its judgments on the canonicity of theScriptures and the dogmas of the Faith as lacking in logicMonk Calf Papal Assand scholarship and authority as its fables of the birds andbeasts and fishes. In all departments of thought and knowledge oiinic inirabilc pro probabili" was accepted as quite a fair canonof logic. The greatest thinkers of the early days of Christianity,Clement of Alexandria, Augustine, Origen, Chrysostom, Jerome,as well as the greatest theologians of the Middle Ages, alike gave their support to the extraordinary rubbish which passedas Natural History. Their canon of evidence was that ofTertullian, "Credo quia absurdum."*

• See Evans, 176.

70CHATTl-.R \'IIMEDLEVAL ROMANCESI. Rkvxard Tin: Fox.Many of the carvint^s of the misericords represent scenes whichoccur in medi.x-val romances, especiall}- the most ancient andmost popular of them all, that of Reynard the Fox. As earlyas the seventh centur)' the Frankish historian, I^Vcdegarius, recounts a fable in which the fox a[)pears as an important per- sonage in the court of the lion; the same fable is repeated b)* a Bavarian writer in the tenth century. Early in the twelfthcentury Guibert de Xogcnt alludes to the personages in theromance b)- the names b}' which they are afterwards alwaysdesignated; Rejnard is the Fox, Isengrin is the wolf, Teburgthe cat, IkMiiard the ass, Brichemcr the stag, Belin the ram,Petitpas the peaco*ck, and so on. Later in the century a collec- tion of fables was composed in Latin b\' Odo de Cirington.One of them was about I.sengrin, who wanted to be a monk,and was sent to school with the novices. But instead of " paternoster," he could not be got to say anything but " lamb," " ram."And when in church, instead of being intent on the rood or thealtar, his gaze was always roving out of doors towards the greenwood for lambs and rams.* Says an old English poem in alliterative verse: " Though thou the hoary wolf Consecrate to priest, Though thou liim set to school His psalms to learn, Ever his eyes \\ ill turn To the green wood." The romance of Reynard the Fox must have been very familiarin England from earl)- times, but there is said to have been noICnglish version of it till Caxton's edition. Re[jrints keptappearing right on to the nineteenth century.+

• Wright's Caricature, 75.

+ A charming metrical version, illustrated, of Reynard f/ie Fox, by MrF. S. Ellis, was published in London, 1894.MKDI.I'.VAL kOMAN'CKS;iThe main plot of the Roman dc Rcii(xrl is concerned withthe loni^ strui^gle between Reynard and Iseni^n'in, between thefox as impersonating mental ability and the wolf as representingbrute force. Though frecjuently reduced to the greatest straits by the power of Iscngrin, Rc)'nard generally gets the better ofhim in the end; robs him and brings on him every sort ofdanger and suffering, for which the latter never succeeds in obtaining justice. There are many other diverting episodes; for nearly everybody falls a victim to Reynard's cunning; theIlristolbear, the cat and the rest all suffer in turn. Perhaps the mostcomplete sets of representations is that to be seen on themisericords in Bristol cathedral. One of them commemoratesthe occasion when Reynard for his sins had been summonedto court b}' King Lion, and l^ruin the Bear was sent to fetch him (71)."Now when Bruin came to Reynard's house, Malepardus by name, thefox told him of much honey which was in a cleft oak in the yard of the car- penter, Lanfert. Bruin pushed his head and shoulders into the cleft oak,72 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHES'^'^ -Ji. mMKDI.I'A'AI, KOMANCKS 73when the wcd<i^es in it dropped out .ind he was i)inncd tij^dit, and howled androared so that all the parish ran thither with j^oads, rakes, and broomsticks; the Priest with the shaft of the cross, the parish clerk with tlie holy-watersprinkier, and the I'riest's wife. Dame Juliock, with lier distaff; and all these belaboured the bear, and poor iiruin in this massacre sat and sij^died extremely, groaning under the burden of their strokes." Another episode tells the sad things tlint bcfel ])o()r Tybert (72)." Then Reynard took 'Tyljcrt the Cat to the I'riest's barn, which was well walled about with a mud wail, where but the night before the Fox had brokenin, and stole from the Priest an exceeding fat hen; at which the PriestBristolwas so angry that he had set a gin before the hole. Therefore, said Reynardto the Cat, ' Creep in at this hole and believe it you shall not tarry a minute'sspace, but you shall have more mice than you are able to devour; hark, you may hear them squeak.' So the Cat sprang quickly into the hole, but wasimmediately caught by the neck in the gin, and was half strangled so that he began to struggle and cry out. Then said Reynard, ' Methinks you singat your meat.' Ikit all this while the Cat was fast, and mewed so piteouslyand loud that Martinet leapt out of his bed and cried to his people, 'Arise,for the thief is taken that hath stolen our hens.' Which words awakenedthe Priest, and he also arose, all stark naked, and coming first to Tybert, smote him with a great staff, and after him many others with Dame Juliockhis wife. But the Cat perceiving death so near him, in a desperate mood74 WOOD CARVINGS IX ENGLISH CIIURCIIKSleapt between the Priest's legs and with claws and teeth fastened on himand mauled him grievously. All this while Reynard stood before the hole, and laughed so extremely that his body was like to break." At last retribution overtook Reynard, and he was condemnedto death for his sins, to the great deh'ght of his ancient victims,Iscngrin and Bruin, who are seen executing a dance of triumphto the music of a tabor played b\' an ape (73). The next sceneshews the gallows erected. On the right King Noble and theQueen look on; on the left the bear, the wolf and the goose,with the squirrel at the top, are read)- to haul at the rojDC (brokenoff; which has been brought b\' Tj-bert the Cat, whf> is in theBristolcentre. But Reynard made such a |:)lausible death-bed confession that the King and Queen grant him a reprieve (74).This hanging scene was a very great favourite, and is repeatedagain and again on the misericords. At Bristol two geese arehauling the rope taut, while a third is hanging on to Reynard'stail to accelerate strangulation. At Beverley geese on the left hold sword and mace, being officials in charge of the execution; in the right supporter an ape is removing the noose from hisfriend's neck; in the left one a fox has come upon two geeseasleep (75). The story of Reynard is carved on the base of thecentral pillar of Salisbury Chapter House; and four geese areMlsDI.l'.VAl, ROMANCES 75IJeverley Minstershewn hanging;" Rc)'narcl on a boss of the cloister of Canterbur}'cathedral; on a faldstool in Sherborne Minster he is beinghant^'ed by four geese, while on either side a monk, book in hand,performs the last sad service for him.2. Shifts of Revnardine.A romance of similar tenor is entitled S/iifts of Rn'tiardiiie, the son of Reynard the Fox* In one of these "shifts" Zani, theape, recommends Reynard to turn doctor, and promises to

• Two editions of this were printed in London in 16S4.

]Manchester7(> WOOD CARVI\(;S I.\ KNGLISH CHURCHESsupply him with all the necessary articles. " Leave that to me,"said the Ape. "Not long ago I, with my companions, goingout for a frolic, found a Pedlar asleep with his pack l\ing b\- him.This pack we took awa\', and equall)' as we could divided allthe wares amongst us, \\\ this means I am stored with razors,lancets, scissors, &c." * Ihis scene occurs in Beverley Minsterand Manchester (75). In another "shift" Re)-nardine enters aconvent and assumes monastic garb, but having stolen a carpfrom the kitchen is enjoined to fast two days by way of penance.Whereon he made his escape, and seeing some geese in a pond,he begins to read in a loud voice. The silly geese leave thepond to listen to him and he snaps them up; this occurs, withvariations, on a misericord at Kempcn.Chestci3. Sir Vvain.Another popular romance of thirteenth century date, tells how Sir Yvain, on horseback, pursued a certain knight. Thelatter, however, galloped across the drawbridge beneath theportcullis and took refuge in a castle. Sir Yvain galloped afterhim, but as he rode in, the portcullis was let drop, and fell onthe hind quarters of his charger, impaling it. Sir Yvain wasthrown into the castle yard and was taken prisoner. But acertain damsel shewed him a postern and he was a free man* Clifton Antiqiiaiian Clul\ i. 245.Ml<:i)M':VAL ROMANCKS 77again. The critical inoincnt when the portcullis has fallen onSir Yvain's horse is shewn in misericords in lioston church,Chester and Lincoln cathedrals, and New College, Oxford; and formerly in St Pcter-per-Mountergate, Norwich ("J^)).4. Swan and I^oat.Another favourite legend, found in various forms in different countries, was the Chevalier an Cygne. On (jne of the misericords at l^xctcr is seen a knight in a boat drawn over the seaExeterby a swan; the flat-top[jed helmet of the knight points to a datenot later than the thirteenth century [jj). In Norske mythologywhenever a hero is drawn by a swan or rides on a swan, theimport is that he is traversing the sea of death, returning to thekingdom of the San Graal. The valkyries who received heroesafter death had the power of transforming themsehes into swans; and the goddess Fre\-a, one of whose functions it wasto receive the souls of dead maidens, had swan's feet.* Theidea is familiar in W^agner's opera LoJiengriu. It appears in various forms. One of them is the subject of a poem, Riidiger,by Southey; another is related by Snowe in Rhine Le^e)ids, 437.

• Miss Kate M. Clarke, xxxix. 237.

WOOD CAR\IN(iS IN i:X( II.ISI Ii 1 1 L'KCI lES5. Till-: Latiiom Lkci'.M).In many families tlicrc was a stor)- of a baby which had beencarried off b}- an eagle, but which lived and grew up to inherit the family title. On a misericord at Manchester cathedral, in the centre, is a tall tree containing the eagle's nest; in the nestis a child gripped by an eagle; woodmen with axes and wallets,who had seen the child carried off, are hurrying to a castle onthe right to tell the news. The same subject occurs on miseri- cords at W'halley and Worcester. At Elford, Stafford, an eaglegripping a child in swaddling clothes forms the crest of thehelmet on which rests the head of Sir John Stanlc)-, o/k 1474.Lincoln6. Aij.xaxdkr's Flight.Man>- were the stories told of Alexander the Great. One,from the Gcsta Roi/ianoruin, tells of his difficulties with theco*ckatrice (page 56); but, as often, makes him to be Emperorof Rome. Of the Romance ofAlc.wvidcr there are two illuminatedcopies in the Ikitish Museum; one of them was the gift of thegreat Talbot to Margaret of Anjou: there is also a very fine copy at Oxford in the Bodleian.* The romance was very

• An illustrated paper by Mr Campbell Hodgson on "Alexander's Journey to the Sky'" appeared in the Burlington Mmrazine for February

1905.• ^Mi:i)r.i:vAi. komancks 79popular, and there are numerous manuscripts of it and i)rintcdeditions in many languages. Its source is to be found in a work written in Greek at Alexandria c. 200 A.D., called PscudoCallisthoics; this was translated into Latin b>' the ArchpriestLeo at Na[)les in the tenth centur}'.The story, says Mr Campbell Hodgson, forms part of aletter supposed to be written by Alexander to his mother,Olympias, describing his exploits and adventures in the Eastand the wonderful birds and beasts he had seen. On arrivingat the end of the world, Alexander was desirous to see whetherit was so, and was the place where the sky slopes down to it. " So," says Alexander, " I ordered two of the birds of tliat place to lie caught; for they were huge white birds, very strong and tame withal, forChesterwhen they saw us, they did not take fliyht; and some of the soldiers mountedon their necks and the birds flew up with them. .So when two of them weresecured, I gave orders that no food should be given them for three days.And on the third day I ordered a piece of wood to be constructed, in shapelike a yoke, and a basket to be fastened in the midst thereof, with two spears seven cubits in length, having horse's liver on the top." The birds were made fast to the wooden frame and Alexander climbed into the basket." Immediately the birds flew up to devour the liver and I went up with themin the air so far that I thought I was near the sky. And I shivered all over by reason of the exceeding coldness of the air that arose from the birds' wings." He goes on to say that he saw far below a great serpentine oceanencircling the earth, which appeared as a small round threshing-floor in the midst thereof. Then he turned the spear downwards and the birds descended on to a spot which was ten days' march from Alexanders camp. \w most versions of the stor)- the birds are expressly said to8o WOOD CARVIXr.S IN KXCLISII CIU'RCIIKSM EDLI'IVAL ROMANCKS 8iThe griffins have not yet started, their wings being foldcfl. In the second example (80) the king gras])s in his right hand andsupports on his left what are pr(jbably the shafts of the twospears mentioned above; while the horse's liver is apparentlyrepresented by two hocks of a deer or ox; the griffins are nowchained by their collars to the throne; their wings are expandedand they are in (light. On misericords in Beverley St Mary andWells cathedral is a king between two griffins rampant withstraps round their necks;* on another, in Lincoln Minster, is a king on a throne, sceptre in hand, his throne suspended fromthe necks of two griffins (78). At Darlington is a crowned kingwith orb and sceptre between two eagles or griffins.f Thereis also an example on a misericord in Chester cathedral, wherethe supporters again are griffins (79).Exeter7. The Lav of Aristotle.What the mediiuval world thought of the philosopherAristotle may be read in the popular Lay of Aristotle writtenin old French towards the end of the twelfth century. Aristotle,it is said, during the campaign in India had rebuked his pupil,Alexander, for giving too much time to a native beauty. The* Illustrated in Arc/nroloi^ia^ Iv. 340.t Illustrated in Longstatie's Darlini^ion^ 218. IJ82 \VOOI) CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHESlady determined on revenge. Accordingly next day she wentinto the orchard beneath Aristotle's window, wearing onl\- a" Coa vestis," singing and gathering flowers. It was too muchfor Aristotle. He came down into the orchard; and in a fewminutes, to please his lady, the philosopher was on all fours,playing at " horses," while she rode, reins in one hand, whip in the other. " Well," said the pupil, who was viewing the scenefrom the castle wall, amazed," Que tout le meilleur clerc du niondFit comme roncin enseler,""if love can make such a fool of an old man, no wonder that a\-oung man cannot escape."Or, as an old French poempoints the moral of thestor}'"Amors vainc tout et tout vaincraTant com cis siecles durera." The Lay of A ristotlc is re- presented on the facade ofLyons cathedral twice; andonce on the Portail de laCalende of Rouen cathedral,on a stall in Lausannecathedral, on a capital in StPierre, Caen (82), on a bossof the vault in the Abbeyof Cadouin, Dordogne; overthe prcsb)tcry windows atCracow; on misericords atDordrecht, Montbenoit, Doubs, Rouen cathedral, and Isled'Adam, Seine-et-Oise; but the finest examples are to be seenon the stalls and capitals of Verteuil, Gironde, where all theepisodes of the story are represented.Mr Drucc notes two examples on English misericords. Inneither of them is the damsel represented, partly because therewas no room for her, partly because everybody knew thereference without her. At Exeter (81) Aristotle has saddleand stirrups and a philosopher's cap; at Chichester (83), thePhrygian cap is represented, to shew the Eastern origin of thestory. It is possible that some of the representations of nakedwomen riding various animals ma}- be parodies of this popularstory.* * See Maeterlinck, 224, 267.St Pierre, CaenMKDI.KVAL ROMANCES 83Viri;il, the epic poet, fcircs no better than Aristotle, thejihilosopher. He had a rendezvous with the daughter of theKinperor of Rome, and was to have been drawn up in a basketto her chamber. But his cruel lady drew him up only half-way,and left him danglint,^ in the basket all night, till daylightexposed him to the ridicule of the passers-by.Chichester8. Valentine and Orson.Another favourite romance was that of Valentine and Orson; the brothers' names still survive on an inn sign in Long Lane,Bermondsey. They are said to have been twins; born in aforest near Orleans. One of them, Orson, was carried off intcj the forest by a bear. While the mother was searching for him,the other brother, Valentine, disappeared, having been taken off by King Pipin. So one brother was brought up by a bear, theother by a king. Orson became a wild man of the woods, andis represented, sometimes as a wodehouse, sometimes as in woodman's dress. One day Valentine went hunting in the forest for the wild man, who was the terror of the district, and at last cameacross Orson. A misericord in Beverley St Mar}s depicts their mutual recognition; it will be seen that Orson is dressed like a simple woodman, while Valentine wears rich court dress. Orson went back to court with V^alentine and became his faithful friend and comrade. One day, in search of adventure, Valentine§4 WOOD CARVINGS IN t:NGMSH CHURCHESset forth to subdue a giant; but after a brave fight was disarmed.Orson, however, came up with his wodehouse ckib, and smotethe giant senseless. This ma\- be the scene represented onmisericords at Gloucester, Chester and Ripon. But fights withgiants are pretty common; and the identification is not worthmuch. The pretty story of Red Riding Hood also occurs; notably on a misericord at Chester.85CIIAPTICR VIIIyESOP'S FABLESFm'.LES were great favourites in the Middle Ages. In 1157Neckham edited at Paris a collection entitled Novus Aisopus.Scenes from fables are common in the twelfth, and still morein the thirteenth century; occurring on porches, tympana,capitals, &c. The fable of the wolf and stork contrasts rapacitywith confiding innocence; it occurs on the west doorways ofAutun and Amiens cathedral. The fable of the fox and storkGloucesteroccurs on the north doorway of Holt church, Worcestershire; and on a misericord in Chester cathedral. That of the fox andthe sour grapes occurs on misericords in Chester cathedral andFaversham church. Two misericords in Gloucester cathedralare pointed out by Dr Oscar Clark as representing scenes from^•Esop. In one a man and donkey are dancing together; this may refer to the fable of the ass and the }'oung dog."The ass was envious of the dog being in such favour with his lord; andsaid he to himself, 'If my lord love this miscreant beast because that heS6 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHESchcereth him and maketh pleasure to everybody, by greater reason theyought to love me if I make cheer to them. From henceforth I shall makemy disport and shall make joy and play with my lord.' But the result wasdisastrous, for the lord's servants then took great staves, and began to smite upon the poor ass, and so beat him that thereafter he had no lust nor courage to dance nor to make cheer or sport." The other misericord seems to illustrate the fable, " Vestigia nulla rctrorsuni" A lion is approaching a fox stealthily, wholooks anything but happy (85)."Once upon a time the lion feigned himself sick. And when the beasts knew that the lion was sick, they would all go to visit and see him as their king. And incontinent as the beasts entered into his house for to see andcomfort him, he devoured and ate them. r>ut the foxes were too wary andwould not come in. And the lion asked of them why they would not comewithin; and one of the foxes said to him: ' We know well by the traces thatall the beasts which have entered into thy house came not out again; no more should we, if entered within, come out again.'"87CHAPTER IXSCENES OF EVERYDAY LIFICTllK misericords hitherto described have all some symbolicalor moral intent. But there is a larg^c and interesting class in which there is no ulterior intent other than to portray faith- fully the dail)^ life of humble folk. The carver knows nothingand depicts nothing of the exalted existence of the lord andsquire in the castle and manor house. His scenes are thoseof everyday life in the village—the village cottage and theSt David'svillage tavern; or what, when he was lucky, he saw now andthen in the village street—the showman with bears or monkeys,or the ducking-stool and the scold inside it. At St David'sis represented home life as it should be; the husband is seated on a bench, and the wife is setting on the table calfs head for dinner (Sy). Many interesting interiors are depicted wherehusband and wife live in harmony; but more often, in very muchthe reverse. At Bristol and elsewhere is seen the process ofcutting up Grunt, the swine (88). At Minster in Thanet,88 WOOD CARVINC;S IN ENGLISH CHURCHESMaidstone and Windsor the operations of cooking are shewn,and quite a large collection of culinary instruments is repre-sented. At Minster the cook is a person of importance, perhapsthe conventual cook; he is stirring the contents of the iron potvigorousl}-, and has a basting Indle and a shovel for puttingbread into the oven; he appears to be shouting out ordersto his scullions; chickens are on the inenu, and are shewn onthe supporters. At Maidstone the cook holds a ladle in his left hand, and in his right a pronged hook for dragging joints outof the boiling water. At Windsor he has left the pot and a bigBristoldog is grabbing the meat in it; he is shewn himself in theleft supporter with a ladle in his hand; in front of him is alarge pestle and mortar, which once was an indispensableaccessory in every kitchen—in recent years many a discardedkitchen mortar has been taken to be a font or a holy-waterstoup—to the left is a table with two platters on it and apot beneath. The dog and pot scene recurs in various forms,e.g., on an elbow rest at Christchurch, and in all probability is a representation of a singularl}- dirt}- custom. In BeverleyMinster a dog is licking out a pot, while the slu*ttish wife isSCENKS OK KVKRVDAY I. IKK 89thrashiiif^ her husband (89). This method of " washing upseems to have been adopted by housewives both here andabroad. It is still the custom among the peasants in Hollandafter dinner to give the pot to the dog to lick out; whereforeit is said of a guest who comes too late to dinner liy viiidt denhoi/d HI dc pot, i.e., that the jjot was empty and had been giventhe dog to lick. That this was also the custom in l^igland in dirty houses appears from the signboards of the inns, " Dog andPot," and "Dog and Crock." In the Roxburghe Ballads it is said of a slu*t" If otherwise she hadlUit a dishcloiit fail, She would them to the dog to lick And wipe them with his tail."Beverley AlinsterThere was formerly an inn in Bishop's Stortford with the sign" The Dog's Head in a Pot." At Minster is depicted a happ)- old lad}' with distaff in hand, busily spinning, with her faithful cat and dog one on eachside. At Ludlow the scene shifts to the village tavern; the aleis running into a jug much bigger than the barrel from whichit is drawn; on the wall is a jug with a spout, and on the floor a small upright keg (90); in another scene the Ludlow alewifeis being dragged off to hell for supplying bad liquor or toolittle of it (148). The infliction of corporal punishment was also a popular subject. In those days ever}'body thrashed everybody. The schoolmaster set the example. " A great man,"said Sir Roger de Coverley, when he came to the monument90 WOOD CARVIXCS IN KNCLISII CIIURCIIF.SLudlowof Dr Husby in Westminster Abbey; " thrashed m)' grandfather."Husband thrashed wife, and not infrcciuently wife thrashedhusband; fathers thrashed sons and daughters too. At Sherborne are four unfortunates at school with their lesson books; one of whom is being flagellated with a very big birch (90)other schoolmasters are seen at work at Boston and Norwich.The main object of education was to get the nonsense thrashedout of a boy; and corporal punishment was depicted on manyschool seals as the most important function of a headmaster; e.g., on the seals of the grammar schools of Louth andUppingham.91CHAPTER XAGRICULTURE AND TRADESWiiKN these misericords were carved, England was mainly arural country; villagers outnumbered townsfolk. The townswere small, and the countryside was close at hand; at everystreet end was a glimpse of green fields; even from the cajjital,London, to Westminster was open country; to reach the latterone passed by the church of St Martin /// tJic Fields and thevillage of Charing. The air was full of country sights andcountry sounds, and poetry was redolent of sweet countr\- air. Everybody had heard the milkmaid singing:"The blackbird and thrushIn every bush And the charminy nightingale Their throats do strain To entertain The jovial train That carry the milking pail." So the milkmaid is seen milking her cow on a misericord inBeverley Minster (189); on the frieze at the back of the watchingloft at St Alban's; and on the east face of the tower atMilverton. Most of all, folk loved the happy summer dayswhen a bumping harvest crowned the long }'ear's work. Thehay harvest offered few opportunities for pictorial treatment; but mowers with scythes are shewn on misericords at Malvern,Ripple and Worcester (92). At Brampton is a mower with abroad-bladed scythe, while his wife gathers up the hay with alarge rake. On the other hand every detail of the cornfield is rendered with loving fidelity. At Lincoln ploughing, harrowingand sowing are all shewn on one misericord; to the plough is yoked a team of oxen, with horses for leaders. At Worcesterthe sower carries the seed in an open box slung over hisshoulder; he has emptied the box and is refilling it with a bowlfrom two sacks on the ground; the birds are fl}^ing down toget their share (92); at Ripple the sower is casting the seedWOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHESWorcester\\'(iri'estciRippleAGRICULTURE AND TRADKS 93broadcast into wcll-iiiark-cd fini-ovvs (ii8). The corn, when ripe,is cut with a sickle as at ]iranii)t()ii; the sickle, as in Ivomanpractice, sometimes had saw-teeth; " Isalcibus denticulatismedium culmen secant;" (Columella, Ih- Dr Riistica). AtWorcester three harvesters are making bands of the corn withwhich to bind the sheaves; each supporter consists of threesheaves (93). In a misericord in tlie Architectural AssociationMuseum a man is [juttinir a band round a sheaf, and his wife is carrying- the sheaves off to a stook (6S): in another misericordin the same museum one harvester is pitching a sheaf up into the cart, while the other is loading the cart; the horse is looking round to see that they do not give him too big a load to draw (68). The third of this set shews the same two menWorcesterthreshing the corn with flails (68); at Brampton a widow womanis gleaning. In Beverley Minster is a graphic picture of sheepshearing. The sheep are small horned sheep, such as may bestill seen on the fells; the three on the left have been shorn; afourth, on the extreme right, is still unshorn; the shepherdbestrides a fifth, just as shearers still do; on his right is a pot oftar with which to stop bleeding from any cut his shears maymake; in front is what seems to be his wife, perhaps rolling upa fleece, or putting salve on a diseased hoof (94). In the left supporter the shepherd is shewn, crook in hand, patting his dog; on the right two sheep are butting one another. At Elya man is shoeing a horse (unless it be a plough ox); a secondman holds him by the tail, and a third by the mane (94). In94 WOOD CAKVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHESIJeveiley .Micbterthose days there was no barle\' meal for the pigs; they had toget their hving as best they could in the woods; in the autumnthe swineherd fattened them for killing b\' providing a generousdiet of acorns. At Worcester he is knocking down acorns froman oak for two pigs (95). The pigs are little like their sleek,smooth skinned descendants; they are usually represented witha ridge of bristles more like that of a wild boar, eg:, at Bristol(88). There is nothing that countr\' folk like to see belter thanslaughtering; and so at Malvern and Worcester (95) a butcheris seen with a pole axe felling a placid ox oblivious of his doom.Drawings of stalls formerly in the church of St Spire at Corbeil,WorcesterWorcesterWellingborough96 WOOD CARVIXC.S IN ENGLISH CIlUKCIIKSnear Paris, depict the wine merchant, the baker, the shoemakerand the carpenter.* Boat buikUng is well rej^resented on a miseri-cord at St David's. At Brampton a length of cloth is strappeddown on a table, and a weaver is cutting the pile with a pair ofshears as big as himself.f Sometimes the very man who carvedthe misericord is seen at work; c.^., at Beverley Minster,l^rampton, Christchurch, Great Doddington, Wellingborough,and formerly at L)'nn St Nicholas, where he was at work on ascreen. At Great Doddington and Wellingborough he hasa board on his knees, on which he is carving a rose in relief:beside him are a hammer, compasses, chisels and gouges (95): inthe former he has a compass and mallet. On the misericordLvnn .St .Nicholasformerl}' at I.xnn St Nicholas is a carver with two apprenticesat work on a bench behind, and another apprentice besidehim: on the supporters are shewn a saw and a gouge (96).On a misericord at Christchurch, Hampshire, a man grasps amallet in his right hand, and a chisel in his left. At \\'ellingborcjugh a shoemaker is represented. At Ludlow the sexton is immortalised; his two shovels are shewn above a tomb, with askull and crossbones; also a holy water bucket and aspersor; it was one of a sexton's most valued perquisites to carry holy waterround the parish and asjDerse the faithful for a small fee. * Illustrated in Wright's Caricature^ 134, 138, 142.t The Brampton misericords are now at Cambridge, in the Arch;rologicalMuseum.97CIIArTl'.R XISrORTS AND PASTIMKSA \'KRV interesting set of carvings depicts the sports and amuse-ments of Old England. P2ngland was still largely covered withforest; and in the forest there roamed the wild boar as well as the stag and fox; while in the open there were hares and rabbitsand partridges galore. For pastime there was football on thevillage green, or the quintain; in every town there was a bullrin<r; in the villaue street and the churcln'ard there were to beWorcesterseen wrestling, quoits, putting the weight, dancing bears, monke)-sat their tricks, acrobats, contortionists, and grinning clownsdancing to the notes of violin and guitar, or of the more plebeianpipe and drum; for indoor games there were dice, backgammon,blind man's buff and the hobby horse. Sport was just as dearto the Englishmen then as now, and there was much more of it. At Worcester the huntsman quite literally " winds his horn "

for it is wound round his body (97). At El)- the huntsman is on

1398 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHEShorseback, and has had a tremendous fall; on the left supporterarc two hinds chased by two dogs (98). In Beverley Minsterthe huntsman is on foot, and with his spear has transfixed thechest of a fine stag, whom two hounds are pulling down frombehind: round their necks are spiked collars for protectionagainst wolves. In another scene two huntsmen are dismembering the stag, which lies on its back with its throat cut. On theleft a man holds a dog in a leash; on the right he blows a horn,while four dogs jump up round him barking (99). Fox huntingis shewn at Gloucester. Ripon and Beverley Minster; Reynard,as usual, is too much for the hounds; at Gloucester he hasclimbed into a tree, while the dogs are ba\'ing below; on the left a huntsman kneeling on his left knee, is drawing an arrow toshoot him (99). At Beverlc)', on the right, Rcjiiard is going to earth, and the huntsman, running up, draws a bow to shoot him(99). The wild boar ]jro\ided nobler sport. In Bcverlc}-Minster the hunter is dri\ing his spear into a boar with bristlingridge and big tusks, while his dog, in quite orthodox fashion,has seized another boar by the ear (100). At Ely the harriers areat work in an oak wood; one hare has alread\' been killed andis slung on a stick over the huntsman's back; two hounds arechasing another hare in the right supporter; in the left supporteranother huntsman, with a hound in leash, is blowing a horn (lOOj; hare hunting is shewn also on a misericord at Chichester.Hawking was not for common folk; a hawk on the wrist wasthe mark of a gentleman. In l^everley Minster, under the stallBeverley Minster(iloucesterBeverlev MinsterBeverley MinsterSl'Ok'lS AND I'ASTIMK^ 101of John Sparke, is a huntsman with a headless hawk on his wrist; on another misericord the centrepiece is a hawk; on theleft the falconer is feeding his hawk; on the v\<^h{ it is preyin<^ on a partridge ( I oo). At Worcester the centrepiece is a sphinx; the hawk has tlown from the falconer on the left, wh(jse glove is well shewn, and on the right has seized a mallard (lOl). Otherexamples occur at Ludlow, Chester, St Katherine's, WinchesterCollege and Wellingborough. The cpiintain is shewn (mi a misericord at Bristol; * and the game of quoits on one at Chester. Two football "forwards" are shewn at high speed at Gloucester (102); and as one of them is on the point of handlingtlie ball, it must be the Rugby and not the Association game! At Ely two wrestlers are getting a grip; at Halsall, Lancashire,is a still more graphic representation Tioz).Worcester The bear-warden and his tame bears were great favouritesin Old England and are frequently represented. In a poemwhich is not later than the twelfth century there is a descriptionof an exhibition of the accomplishments of tame bears whichfollowed the dinner of a Teutonic chief: f" Et pariles ursi Qui vas tollebant ut hom*o, bipedesque yerebant.Mimi quando fides diyitis tangunt modLilantes,nil saltabant, nuineros pedibus variabant. Interdum saliiint seseque super jaciebant. Alterutium dorso se portabant residendo,Amplexando se, kictando deficiunt se."

• Possibly the illustration on page 160 may refer to the quintain,

t Wright's Caricature^ 43.Ciloucesier1 1 aliaBe\erley MinsterSPORTS AN'I) PASTIMi:S IO3At Beverley Minister there are four misericords in which the bearappears. In one a man on horseback leads by a chain threemuzzled bears. In;i second two men are draL^ginc^ a muzzledbear by a rope towards a wheelbarrow which a third man is i)ushingup; on the right supporter a muzzled bear is licking his paws(102). In a third the)' have got the bear on to a sort of wickersledge, which two of them are dragging by a rope, while a third holds the staff of a flag; on the left supporter the bearward is muzzling a bear; on the right a bear and a man are wrestling or dancing together (104). At Gloucester a big dog, wearing a collar,is worrying a bear with collar and chain; there seem to be twobear leaders, for there arc two hats on the ground, but only one man is shewn (104). In a fourth misericord in BeverleyMinster four dogs are baiting a bear; the bear has got one dogdown, and the dog in front has been mauled and is howling; a third has seized the bear by the neck; two hunters are urging on the dogs, one of them blowing a horn. If it is a spear-headthat projects from the bear's back, the scene will represent a bear hunt, and not the baiting of a tame bear (104). The bearis a favourite also on the misericords of Boston church; wherehe is represented as an accomplished musician, playing in turn the bagpipes, organ and drum.A still greater favourite was the monkey—usually rei^rc- sented as a dog-faced baboon. His baboon character comesout strongly on a misericord in Beverley St Mary's (181) andon the elbow of a stall at Stovvmarket. The baboon has hada long history in art. A favourite subject in Roman art repre- sented yEneas carrying his father Anchises, and dragging alongby the hand his little boy Ascanius, from the flames of Tro}-.This is burlesqued in a wall-painting in Pompeii by giving all three the heads of baboons; /l^^neas is a strong \-oung monke}',looking back on burning Troy, and carrying an old monkeywho holds the box containing the treasures of empire; the bo}-holds a sort of hockey stick.* The monkey was known to the Anglo-Saxons, who called it apa, our word ape. In theBestiaries it is described as a consummate mimic; moreover among its young it always has some which it likes and favours more than the rest. This fondness for its offspring maybe the reason why on misericords in Beverley Minster andManchester it is represented dandling a swaddled bab}'; unlessthe reference be to some forgotten story of a monkey runningaway with a baby from its cradle (75). The monkey is oftenrepresented in derision of music and dancing; in Beverley

• Illustrated in Wright's Caricafufe, 22 and 95.

Hexeilev Minster( "ilonrestcrBeverley MinsterSI'ORTS ANM) I'ASTIMKS IO5Minster he plays the ba^^pipes while a bear dances ( 104;. Heis the chief friend of Reynard the fox; on one misericord, after the hanging of Reynard, the monkey is unloosing the noose; in another he is tucking him up in bed (99). One of the chiefaccomplishments of a trained monkey was riding. In the baileyof the castle, the churchyard and the village green every one had seen monkeys astride all sorts of animals. They weretaken to tournaments so that they might see what to do. Alexander Neckham, writing late in the twelfth century, saysthat one of the showmen taught his two dogs to carry two apes, who sat on their backs provided with military weapons; nordid they lack spurs, with which they vehemently urged on their steeds. Having broken their lances, they drew their swords,with which they spent many blows on each other's shields. Such a tournament, except that the steeds as well as the riders are monkeys, is represented in Queen Mary's Psalter. In a book of prayers, late in the thirteenth century, in the Harleiancollection, is an illustration of a monkey riding on a bear. The[ackmiapcs 011 Horseback was not uncom.mon as an inn sign.Plolinshed says that in 1562 " for the diversion of the populacethere was an horse with an ape on his back, which highly pleasedthem, so that they expressed their inward conceived joy anddelight with shrill shouts and variet}' of gesture." This wasa common interlude in bear or bull baiting. In 1572 theparsons were accused of galloping through morning service,because " there are some games to be pla)ed in the afternoon,e.g., a bear or a bull to be baited, or else a jackanapes to ride on horseback." So late as 1856 the Parisians were entertainedevery Sunday afternoon in the Hippodrome by apes on horseback in Arab dress.* On a misericord in Beverley Minster anape is on horseback; on another he is mounted on a dog (99).It is hardly likely that there were travelling menageries in the fourteenth and fifteenth century; but it was common enoughfor noblemen to keep wild animals and to let them out occasionally as a spectacle or to set them to fight one another. ThusHenry I. had a menagerie at Woodstock, which remained theretill it was transferred to the Tower of London by Henry III.;it remained in the Tower, where it was one of the chief attractions, for several centuries, in fact till the establishment of thepresent Zoological Gardens in Regent's Park. In the thirteenthcentury the French architect, Villard de Honnecourt, wasinvited to visit the menagerie of a great lord, and made sketches,still in existence, of two parrots and a lion; "cil lion," he says

• Larwood and Hotlen, 439. 14

io6 WOOD CARVIN(;S IiN I'.NCl.ISIl (IILRCIIKSproudl)-, " flit contrefais al vif." Some of the carvers also musthave seen real lions and camels and elcpiiants; others ccrtainl\'had not, or the}' would not have produced such elephantsas those at Gloucester and Beverley Minster. Camels occur atBoston, Manchester, Ripon, Lincoln, and All Saints', Hereford.At Manchester a camel fights a unicorn, and at Lincoln andRipon a lion; which does not argue an\- very intimate knowledgeof the habits of the animals.In many cases no doubt animal subjects are no more thanobservations, sometimes surprisingly minute and telling, ofnatural history. Nothing can be prettier than the carxings ofthe cat and mice* (io6 , the hen and chickens (157), the co*ckson a tun, and the cow licking itself (189), on misericords in Hcvcrlieverley .Mmslerley Minster; that of a bat, and another of a bats head, at Wellsare absolutel\- photographic ( 107). The sow and pigs at Ripon; and the fighting rams at El}' and lievcrley (94} also deservenotice. Quite realistic is the sheep-shearing scene in the last. At Christchurch, on a Renaissance misericord, is a dog gnawinga bone; every rib and vertebra of the starved creature is shewn.This subject occurs also on a misericord in l^everle}- Minster andon a piscina in the undercroft of the Chapter House at Wells.It also appears on a Flemish brass, dated 1429, of RichardThornton in All Saints' church, Xewcastle-on-T\'ne, where thefeet of the recumbent figure rest on a dog gnawing a bone; it * The cat and mice, tlie co*ck crowing^, the bat, the sow and pigs, andthe hen and chickens are all Bestiary subjects.G. C. D.WellsClii"istrhui-(;hChesterio8 WOOD CAUVIXr.S IN ENGLISH CHURCHESmust have some esoteric meaning (107). Very vigorous indeedis the masterly carving of the fox and goose at CarHsle (37). ICciualh' reaHstic are the imaginary beasties at All Saints',Hereford (66). The finest misericord of all is perhaps that ofthe two herons at Chester (107), near which ma}- be placed thatof the two pelicans in the same cathedral (146). The sportingsubject of the hawk or falcon pouncing on a mallard or a rabbit is very frequent, and is usually rendered in a spirited manner (108 J. Among the villagers and burghers the stately dances of thenobilit}' had no vogue; they preferred to see dancing bears andmonkeys, ladies who could stand on their heads and turn asomersault, and the like. At Chichester a minstrel is seen kissinga posturer '^109). When the daughter of Herodias is representedWellsat Ely before Herod, she is not dancing, but turning a somersault (144); other tumblers are seen at Chichester, Christchurch,Hemington, Winchester, Magdalen and All Saints', Oxford.And there was great applause for the man who could twisthis limbs into impossible positions; contortionists occur veryfrequently on the misericords. Contorted figures are oftenemplo)-ed to support the ledge; r.^i^., at Ely (198) and All Saints',Hereford (109). Sometimes the posture-makers worked in pairs.One trick was for a couple of them to arrange themselves ballsha[)e, and then roll over and over (109); in TVance this goes bythe name o{ pct-cfi-gninlc* On another misericord, also at El)', two men on a seat appear to be supporting a horse's hind legs; * See Witkowski's IJart profane, 354.ChichesterHerefordno WOOD CAKVIX(;S I\ KNCLISIl CIIUKCIIKSeach of the supposititious legs, however, is really composed of anarm and a leg of one of the posture-makers (i lo). Another sportwas to see who could make the most comical or the most horriblegrimace; prizes are still offered here and there in out-of-the-wayplaces at the village feast for the clown who wins most applauseb)' grinning through a horse collar. Most vigorous examplesoccur at Beverley Minster, in fool's caps (i 1 1) at Sherborne (i 1 1), Chichester. Stratford-on-Avon, and elsewhere. The professionalfool, with eared cap, scalloped tunic, bells and bladder, naturallyoccurs very frequently; there is a fine example in BeverleyMinster (112); where indeed he had ever\' right to be; for everyChristmas there was held in the Minster the Feast of Fools, whenthe clergy and others, dressed up as fools, held mock services andparodied the ritual. It was a very ancient custom, pagan nodoubt in origin, taken over by the Christian Church in its earlydays. It was customar\', afr coiisuctndiiic, in Sens cathedral in1222. In 1391 the Archbishop of ^'ork at last issued injunctionto the Provost of Beverley Minster "that he abolish the corruptand ancient custom of the King of Fools, both within the churchand without." It was formally abolished throughout Englandby royal proclamation in 1542; it lingered on in France till 1668.* All these people —the bear leader, the tumbler, theacrobat, the contortionist, the clown and the professional fool,were in those days welcome in the highest circles. They werehired to dispel the stupidit\- of a dinner party just as a West End* Wildridge, 27.

t 12 WOOD CAI^VIXC.S I\ i:\(;i.ISlI CIIURCIIKShostess no\vada)^s engages an opera singer. They were allowedto brighten the monotonous life of the mcdi;ijval monk; theywere even admitted into nunneries. Their e.xpcrt knowledgeBeverley Minsterwas called on to make a success of the religious dramas, themysteries and the miracle pla}'s; the}' were indispensable tothat large section of the British people whicli has not wit enough.Sherborneto amu.se itself Their efforts to keep their dull hearers onthe smile were arduous, and the large measure of success withwhich they were crowned gave them an important social status;SPORTS AND I'AS'ri.Mi;S II3the)' .sui)[)liecl .i want. The wood-carvers, therefore, wlio recfjrdedreal life, rii;htly ^ave them an impDrtant position anions; thesubjects of the misericords.A few chikh'en's games are also depicted. At Sherbcjrnethe hobby horse is shewn (112); at Westminster a boy bestridesone. At St Andrew Hubbard, London, in 1499 there was" paid 2d. to Mayer's child for dancing with the hobby horse." Blind Man's Buff is said to be carved on a misericord at Bristol; backgammon or trie trac on others at Manchester and Windsor.On a misericord at Westminster two boys have their hands andfeet tied to a stick passed beneath their knees, antl are playingat co*ck-fiehtine.15114CHAPTER XIITHE MONTHS AND SEASONSReprkskntations of the months, seasons, and signs of theZodiac were very frequent, both in classical and in medi.evalart. A full account of these is given b\- Mr James Fowler inArcliceologia, xliv. 137. His examples, however, arc largelydrawn from foreign sources, especially from cathedral sculpture,tiles and glass in Italy and France, and are only applicable ina general way to English medi;fval wood carving; moreoverhe did not include the important series from Carlisle. TheMonths and Seasons in architecture are intimately connectedwith the mediaeval Psalters, which were generally preceded byacalendar. Each month occupies a page, the sign of the Zodiacbeing placed at the top and the appropriate occupation for themonth at the foot. Two manuscript calendars of the eleventhcentury, both in the Ikitish Museum, Tiberius B. v. andJulius A. vi., may be taken as typical examples and will bereferred to below. The occupations ascribed to each monthare by no means uniform in manuscripts and sculpture; comparisons are interesting as indicating variations of climate andhabit. Good examples of Zodiacs or Months may be seen atthe following places, (i) Brookland. At Brookland, Kent, isa lead font, of late twelfth centurj- date, with both zodiacs andmonths. (2) BuDiham. At Burnham Deepdale, Norfolk, is astone font with the months. Both these fonts are illustratedand described in the writer's Fonts and Font Covers, pp. 189 and190. (3) York. The twelfth century doorway of St Margaret's,York, has the months. (4) Easby. Some of the months wererepresented in wall paintings in liasb\- church, Yorkshire.(5) Leicester. Others are seen in late painted glass in theMayor's Parlour in the old Town Hall at Leicester. (6) StAlbans. Another series, mutilated in parts, is seen at the backof the watching loft at St Alban's, which was probably erectedin the reign of Richard H. (7) Carlisle. A complete set ofthe months (m.uch restored) occurs on the fourteenth centuryTHE MONTHS AND SKASONS I15ca|)it;ils of the pier arcade of the (luire of Carlisle.* (ioorlexamples of the months also appear on the west doorwav's of thecathedrals of Senlis, Reims, Amiens, I'aris; on the north doorway of Semur and Chartres, and in the <^lass of the cjuire of thelatter, and in the western rose of Notre Dame, I'aris. Thefollowing verses were a faxourite iiiciiioi-id Icclniica of the repre- sentations of the months:1 I'oto 2 lij^na cremo 3 de vite superflua demo,4 Do foramen j^ratiini 5 mihi flos scrvit, milii |)ratani, 6 Fiunum decline 7 messes meto 8 vina propino,9 sem*n humi jacto, 10 mihi pasco suem, 1 i immolo porcos.It was noted also by scholars that the months correspondedwith the number of the Apostles.A very large number of the carvings on misericords, whichhave been described above as representations of agriculture,trades and occupations, sport, domestic life, &c., are in additionrepresentations of the months or the seasons. It is difficult,however, in many cases to identify them with certainty. In thefirst place, there appears to be no complete set of representations of the months surviving on misericords. Secondly, in the numerous "restorations" of the churches the original orderof the misericords has usually been completely upset: the nine sets mentioned above, which are not misericords, retain their originalorder, and in many cases are inscribed with the name of themonth represented. Thirdl}', the calendar has been changed: e.g., our month of Ma}- corresponds to the last half of May andthe first half of June in the medicEval calendar. Fourthh',many of these representations, e.g.^ of Janus and of thevintage, undoubtedly go back to classical times and appl\- to southern climes where the seasons are much earlier than withus, e.g., Pig killing, which in England symbolised Novemberor December, stands for September on the facade of Parmacathedral. The ancient representations of the months and seasonsfiltered through in more than one way. They occur over andover again in literature; the Pseudo-Ansonius has a long poemdevoted to nothing else; we have already alluded to their occurrence in illuminated manuscripts; finalh', the>- werefamiliarised to the common folk b\' rude illustrations in mediaeval almanacks and the like. Ultimately the pictorialrepresentations of the months became to a considerable extentstandardised.

• See Mr Fowler's monograph.

Il6 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CIIURCIIKSJaxuakv.—The pagan representation of Janus is frequenthe has two heads; the idea is that with one head he looks backon the Old Year, with the other forward to the New; this is seenat Worle (ii/). Sometimes he is rather ingeniously suppliedwith three heads; for if he has one head for the past andasecond for the future, he needs a third for the present. Chaucersays of Januar}- in the Fraiikliiis Talc"Janus sits by tlie fire with double beard,And diinketh out his bugle horn the wine; Before hini stands the brawn of tusked swine,And ' Nowell ' crieth every lusty man."At Carlisle is a figure in a loose-fitting tunic, sitting down; hehas three faces —two in profile—and is drinking with the rightand left mouths. At Brookland there is a two-faced Janusseated at the table with Saxon drinking horn and goblet, drinking the Old Year out and the New Year in. At Malvern aman is sitting at tabic; and though he has but one mouth,he is holding two goblets (117). At Burnham and St Alban'sthere is a man carousing. At Ripple a man is shewn emptj-ingtwo jugs; this seems to be an English version of Aquarius (117).The two manuscripts have representations of ploughing andsowing; and it may be that the representation on a Worcestermisericord of a woman with a distaff and a man diggingwith a spade may mean Januar)'. Ploughing is shewn ona Lincoln misericord; on another is a man carrying wood forthe fire. FKliRUAKV.—This month was a very cold one, as it includedthe first half of the present March; and by far the commonestrepresentation of it is to depict a man who has the good senseto stay indoors. At Ripple husband and wife sit over the fire; the husband has a cold in the head, and his head and neck aremuffled up; on his hands are thick woollen gloves with thumbbut no fingers; the wife is spinning, and on her chair back sitsthe cat, washing its paws (118). At Worcester is another manwith a cold in his head, and gloves; he has taken his boots offto warm his toes the better. On the right a couple of flitches ofbacon hang on the wall, as in many a farmhouse in Yorkshireat present; on the left his dog is enjoying the warmth ofthe fire (118); in the same scene in Notre Dame, Paris, a hamand a string of sausages hang on the wall. At Carlisle isanother man, also suffering from the cold; it is " Fcbruar)'Fill-dyke": he is holding one of his boots upside down to letthe water drain out of it, the other is toasting at the fire. BothJanuary Worle[anuarv Alah emJanuary—RippleFeljruary—RippleFebruary—WorcesterMarch—RippleTill'; MONTHS AN I) si;as()N.s 119at Worcester and Carlisle the fireplace is carefully carved. Thesame scene occurs on the two fonts, and at York and StAlban's; and is re-used by Thorswalden in his beautifulmedallion of Winter. The two manuscripts, however, haverepresentations of prunini^; these perhaps may be drawn fn^mItalian viticulture. March.—The latter half of our March and the first half of our April is a busy time for the Ent^lish farmer; hehas to plough, harrow, and get his seed in; and it is also the lambing season, which nowadays in luigiand, exceptin warm and sheltered places, where it is earlier, occupiesparts of March, April and May. Digging, sowing andharrowing are shewn in the two manuscripts; digging is seen at Carlisle and Burnham. This is the time for sowingthe spring corn; which is shewn at I'Lasby, Worcester,Malvern and Rii)ple. Spenser associates March both withcliirijin<j and sowintj: fc.t>"" in his hand a spade he also hent. And in a bag all sorts of seeds ysame, Which on the earth he strowcd as he went."At Worcester the sower has a box of corn slung over his shoulder which he is filling with a bowl from one or two sacks on the ground; the supporters are birds trooping down to gettheir share (92); at Easby a crow is picking up the corn. AtRipple the corn is in a basket of the type now in use in gardens; with his right hand the sower is sowing broadcast (118). Thelambing season is represented at St Alban's, and pruning at Brookland and York. Pruning is of the very greatest importancein wine districts, such as those of Italy; and Virgil and otherwriters on Roman agriculture lay great stress on it. In England, however, it is a very insignificant part of the farmer's work; and it may be suspected that its use as a symbol ofMarch comes from a classical source. March is a windymonth, and its wintry blasts may be symbolised by the blasts of the horn; a similar metaphor is employed by Shakespeare in Henry IV., Part I.: "The southern windDoth play the trumpet to his purposes, And by his hollow whistling in the leavesF"oretells a tempest and a blustering day."This may be the symbolism of the Gloucester misericord wherethe huntsman sounds his horn and his cloak streams out in theI20 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHESstrong wind (121).!March is i'e]jrescnted in a Runic calendarby a full-faced sun; this occurs at Ripple (121). The sign ofthe month is Aries; this may explain the right supporter ofa misericord in Beverley Minster in which the horns of two ramsmake the astronomical sign of Aries.*April.—In this inonth also pruning is rei)resented at Burnham, Easby and Carlisle; and the lambing season againat St Alban's. But at Brookland a woman, and at York aman are shewn holding up branches or flowers; at Worcesterand Malvern is a man holding in each hand a bunch of flowers; at Ripple a woman holds a bouquet in each hand, and is flankedby two more large bouquets (121). This refers to what seems to have been one of the happiest days in the j'ear in Old Kngland,when the whole parish went forth in procession with bannersand posies of flowers. This was at Rogation Tide, and as thatoften fell in Ma)', the same symbolism occurs for May as for.April. The GcJiigdajs, as they were called, are represented in Ma)' at Carlisle by a woman holding in each hand a bunch offoliage. In the two manuscripts feasting is represented, whichmay be another reference to the rejoicings at Rogation Tide.It is quite possible that this festival of the spring tide goes backto pagan days, and is a survival of the Roman I'loralia. In England the festival was held both in town and countryparishes. In the latter the relics of the saints were taken outof the church and carried in solemn procession round the fields. This was usual even in Bede's time. He says, " Tertia feria autem Ascensionem Domini . . . ambula\imus cum reliquiissanctorum, ut consuetudo illius diei poscebat."May.—In this month there are representations of theGangdays at Burnham and Carlisle, of the lambing season in the two manuscripts, of digging at Easby, of milking at StAlban's (the cows now being in full milk) and in a supporterat Beverley (189), of a man with an ox at York, and at Brookland of a man on horseback with a hawk on his left wrist. June.—In June also at Carlisle a horseman is shewn,carrying a hawk in his right hand, and holding in his left aspray of roses, the typical flower of the month; at Easby thereis a man on horseback. One manuscript shews felling timberthe other reaping corn; both representations must come froma southern clime. In England this is the great season for haymaking; men with scythes are shewn at Brookland, York,and St Alban's. At Malvern is a man holding a scythe in front of him. At Brampton a man has a broad-bladed scythe; his

• Wildridge, 21.

March—( iloucesterMarch—RippleApril—Ripple i6122 WOOD CARVIN(;S IN ExXCLISII CHURCHESwife a toothed rake. There is a French sayint^, biddint^ to putthe scythe into the meadow on the i ith of June: " A la saint Barnabc La faux an pr^." In this month also begins the weeding of the growing corn; this was done with a pair of tools; with a crutch in the lefthand the weeds were held down, while their tops were cut offwith a hook held in the right; this is shewn on a misericordat Malvern, a very slovenh' process; nowadays we should hoethem up, roots and all. This was the month for sheepshearingalso; old Tusser writes: " In June wash thy sheep when the water doth run; Then shear them and spare not." Sheepshearing is represented in Bevcrle\- Minster (94).July.—The hay harvest does not finish in June, at anyrate in northern counties, and so it is shewn at Carlisle as anemblem of Jul\-. The second manuscript depicts grass beingmown; so also at Burnham; at Brookland a man is gatheringtogether the hay with a rake. Weeding also continues; it occurs at York, St Alban's, and Carlisle, but in the last not till August. Felling trees is shewn in the first manuscript, but thatmust refer to an Italian climate. AUCJU.ST.—There is no ambiguit}- as to the emblem of thismonth; it is the month of the corn-harvest and that alone; anda much more important month than it is now, when the corn is cut and tied into sheaves by machinery; all that is left to thefarm hands now is to pile the corn in "stooks" or "shocks," andwhen it has remained long enough in stook for the corn to fill up and harden, to carry it away and stack it. But beforemachinery came in, when the corn was reaped with a sickle,harvest lasted from first to last some six weeks, even if therewere no breaks of bad weather. So there is a crowd of repre-sentations of the corn harvest. Reaping is depicted in thesecond manuscript; at Brookland; at York; and at St Alban's.At Brampton a man is reaping and la)-ing the corn he has cutin a sheaf reach- to be tied up; at his back is his wife, whois resting from her work for a moment with her sickle on her back.At Ripple also man and wife work together; they have a toolin each hand and have been supposed to be weeding; butwhat they are cutting is plainly not weeds but corn; with acrutch or hook they push the corn stalks towards the sickle C92).The next thing is to take a handful of corn stalks and makethem into a band; this is seen at Worcester, where the threeTill'; MONTHS AND SKASONS 1 23harvesters have \vronL;ly been thouL^ht to be wecdiiii^ (93). Atl^urnham also a man is seen bindiiiLj a sheaf. At Lynn the manis bindin<^ a sheaf, and the wife is carryini;" the sheaves to a stock(68); at l^rampton the stock is shewn in dreadful perspective.Then, again at Lynn, up comes the horse and cart; a man is pitching up the sheaves with a fork to another who is loadingthe cart with them (6(S). At Ripple there was not room for thehorse and cart in the harvest field (118); so it has been insertedin another misericord, that of the sower; one s)'mbolising thebeginning, the other the end of the year's work. When thefields are clear, the women go a gleaning, as at Brampton.Nowadays the horse-rakes leave so little on the ground that it is hardly worth while to go a gleaning; but in the old days everycottager's family expected to get enough corn by gleaning to last them right through the winter. SkI'TEM1!KK.—When the corn was once housed in stack or barn, there remained the long task of threshing it. Before theadvent of the steam thrcshing-macliine, this occupation was a godsend to country labourers, keeping them in employmentnearly all the winter in bad weather when they could not get onto the land and when there was little to do on it. Threshing of course was done with the flail. On both fonts and at Leicestera man is threshing with a flail; at Lynn two men (68) haveflails. On the seal of the Mayor of Grimsby a boar hunt is represented; the woods in the neighbouring hamlet of Bradley were preserved for the hunting of the boar, and September 8 wasthe opening day. At lieverley St Mary a huntsman in top bootshas driven a spear into the boar; with his left he is about to draw his "misericord" to cut the beast's throat. In BeverleyMinster the huntsman is sticking a spear into one boar, whilea dog seizes another by the ear ([oo). The first manuscriptalso depicts the hunting of the boar; and at St Alban's is shewnan oak with a squirrel in it and a huntsman below. In the secondmanuscript swine are being driven to the woods; and at Yorkgrapes are being gathered; if English, they must have beenunripe; but both representations probably derive from an Italian source; treading grapes occurs over a dccrwa\' of Modenacathedral and under the vestibule of Lucca cathedral. October.—When the oak woods were full of acorns—andin those days the greater part of England was woodland—theswine were driven into the woods every da)- to feed on the acorns or mast. Every morning, as may be seen still in man}- a German village, the swineherd went round very early blowinghis horn, and the pigs tumbled over one another to get out ofthe sties. At the top of the great northern pinnacle of the124 WOOD CARVINCS IN F.NC.LISII CIIUKCIIKSfacade of Lincoln minster is a statue of the swinelicrd ofStowe blowing his horn. In addition to windfalls, the swinehad what acorns the swineherd could knock down from theoaks; he is seen at work at Lincoln, Malvern, York, Ripple, andWorcester (95). The acorn season lasted about six weeksfrom the end of September; so the acorn and pig scene is usedas an emblem of November at Brookland, where the swineherdholds aloft a hooked stick for dragging down the acorns, andthe pigs are feeding below. In a capital of the Chapter House inYork Minster is carved an oak tree with acorns; squirrels feedin the branches and pigs below.*October is also the vintage month. At Brookland a manstands in a hooped vat and holds uj) a bunch of grapes so thatTill', MONTHS AND SICASONS 125till casks were made or repaired, the grapes pressed, and thewine barrelled. Ha\vkin{^ is the emblem of October in the twomanuscripts. At Worcester there is a king with a glove on hisleft wrist; his right hand (broken) carried a hawk; the twoclaws gras[)ing the wrist may still be seen; a page (headless)holds his charger. At Ripple is a mounted man with a hawk(broken) on his left wrist; behind is a spaniel (125;. .At JJeverley Minster is a gentleman with a hawk (hcadles.s) on his wrist; and a servant with three s[janiels, one of themin leash. Representations of a hawk or falcon striking a mallard or a rabbit are very common; (\i,'"., in lieverleyMinster (100). Hare hunting also was an autumn sport;^-.^r, Ely (100).November.—The great event of this month was the slaughterOctober—Rippleof the family pig. He had had six weeks feasting on acorns, and was now fat. Therefore frequently a sow^ and her litter, all read}'for killing, are represented; i-.^:, at St Alban's and Worcester." Venit hyems," says Virgil, " Glande sues laeti redeunt." It was important to kill them while the}' were prime and fat, saysTusser." When hog is fat, Lose none of that; When mast is gone, Hog falls anon." Spenser in the Faery Qnccit (Canto vii.) personifies November:Next was November; he full gross and fat As fed with lard, and that right well might seem, For he had been a fatting hogs of late."126 WOOD CAKNIXGS IN KNCLISII CIIURCIIKSIn early dax's the pig was decapitated; a great mistake, as theblood was lost for black puddings. More often his throat wascut, as nowada\-s; he was first hauled up on to a cratch, that a jug might be placed beneath to catch the blood. At Bristol he is being hauled up, alive, on to a cratch; one man holdshis front legs; his snout is fastened to the cratch; a second man twists his tail to induce him to mount the cratch (88).At Ripple one man is hauling him by a rope on to a cratch on the right; the second twists his tail; the pigsqueals; so does a sympathetic comrade (126). Great wasthe bloodshed in November; hence Bede calls it BlodXo\ ember—RippletiioJiath; and in old German it is styled SlagJitmotiat, i.e., slaughter-month.December. — When there was no more grass for thelive stock, all had to be killed except the plough ox, andas many cows and sheep as could be kept alive on the scantystock of ha\'. All this beef and mutton was salted downor pickled and barrelled; no more fresh meat till spring;hence the prevalence of scurvy, as people had to live onsalt and pickled meat all the long winter months. At Worcester, Malvern, and Ciudad Rodrigo, Spain, is a butcherabout to fell an ox (95); at Carlisle one man is about to fell an ox, the other holds him by the horns. The weathermight be expected to turn cold from the middle of ourTIIK MONTHS AND SEASONS 1 27December to the middle of our J;iiiii;ir\-; so in his Dcceiiibcrs Abstract Tusser sa}'s that it is" No season to liedj^'e;( let beetle and wcd^e; Cleave logs now all For kitchen and hall."In several examples men are shewn splitting logs; c.i^., at lieverley (89) and perliaps at Rij)ple. At Leicester a man is warming himself at a fire made no doubt with the split logs. In December at Brookland there is more slaughter; a man is shewn behind a pig with uplifted axe, ready to slay. Thisdoubtless helps to provide the Christmas dinner at which menare seen carousing at Burnham and York.128CHAPTER XIIIOLD TESTAMENT SUBJECTSFrom the twelfth century onward it is probably not too muchto say that the walls of every parish church were plastered overwithin, and on the plaster were painted the Bible story andlegends of the saints. From the fourteenth centur)-, commencingat Gloucester c. 1350, new mastery was gained over the art ofstaining glass, and in all the larger churches, and in hundredsof minor parish churches, every window repeated the story ofthe Old and New Testament and the Christian Church. In the greater churches, too, the histor)' of God and His Church was eternalised in stone; in the arcading of Salisburx* Chapterhouse, Worcester quire aisles, Ely Lady chapel and elsewhere.To the wood carver on the other hand, ecclesiastical subjectsmade little appeal. He was a man of the people, and evidentlythose whose tastes he was allowed to consider, and did consider, were not bishops and abbots or monks and canons, but justcommon people like himself \"ery many churches possessedsets of over sixty misericords; in man}' of them room was foundfor but one scriptural subject, sometimes not even for one.* It may be that in the limited space at his disposal it was difficult to employ subjects which involved the presence of manyfigures. At times indeed he did grapple with such subjects; e.g., at Ely with the execution of St John Baptist; at Westminster and Worcester with the Judgment of Solomon.Nevertheless the temptation was great to restrict himself to more simple subjects —a jjelican, a mermaid, a griffin, or a grinning mask. Another reason doubtless was his felt incapacity' to do justice to the human figure and the folds of draper}'. If he failed with a lady's face or headgear or figure or dress, ever\-body noticed it and told him of it; when he carved a w}'vernor a griffin or a mask, he was out of the reach of nigglingcriticism. But probabl}- the reason why the ecclesiastical dignitaries who paid for the work preferred as a rule other than

• In Belgium only one set of misericords, that in St GerUude, Loiivain, has Scripture subjects.

OLD TIvSTAMICNT SUIJJKCTS I 29scriptural subjects was that the)' (h'd not wish a cleHiication ofsacred tliini^s to be {ilaced where it would iiormall)- be in contact with the least honourable portion of the human jjerson.*The choice of subjects from the Old Testament is interestini^ both positively and nes^ativel)-. In the first place the carvers and their employers, the clergy, did not much care for the OldTestament subjects as such. These had little impcn'tance orinterest in their eyes except so far as they were symbolical ofpersons or scenes in the New Testament. Nothing was moreinsisted upon in medi;eval theology and art than the doctrineof type and antitype. In the wood carvings this meant largelyrestriction to those subjects which the theologians accepted as types of Christ and the Christian Church. Of these some wereobvious enough; such as the Brazen Serpent and Jonah andthe Whale; but there are probably (ew readers of this chaj^terwho could tell before they reach a few pages lower down, whatis the symbolism of Samson carrying off the gates of Gaza or of Caleb and Joshua carrying a bunch of grapes. Crowds ofdramatic and picturesque incidents scattered about the OldTestament, such as the building of the Tower of Babel andmany exploits recorded in the Book of Judges are never repre- sented at all; the reason is that they were not types. Anotherreason is that only a small portion of the Old Testament, outsidethe Psalms, was included in the Church services; for most folk, at any rate for the carvers, the great part of it, so far as the}' were concerned, might never have existed. On the other handthe Old Testament narratives that were included in the frequentand regularly recurring Church services were familiar in their mouths as household words; of these representations were multiplied ad iiifiiiitiiiii. On misericords scriptural subjects of an)- kind are in a greatminority. Of the churches where most are depicted, Worcesterhas the best record; its misericords depict the Temptation, theSacrifice of Isaac, the Golden Calf, the Judgment of Solomon,the Circumcision and the Presentation in the Temple. Lincolnprefers the story of the New Testament, of which it has several scenes; El)- and Ripon have three or four scriptural subjectseach. The carvings are divided pretty equally between theOld and the New Testaments. The Temptation is illustrated at Ely and Worcester. At Ely Adam has half eaten his apple,Eve shews hers in her hand; both are beginning to feel * So also Maeterlinck: " On comprendra aisem*nt que les sculptures quiservirent de sieges, se trouvant en contact avec une partie du corps humainconsideree comme peu noble, ne pouverent gu^re faire I'objet d'une decoration religieuse ou symbolique."17i^.o WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CnURCIIKSashamed; two apples are left on the tree. Round the foot ofit is coiled a serpent's tail; it has, as usual, a well-formed humanhead. On the left supporter are some queer quadrupeds, and in front an ape. On the right, rabbits are bolting in and out oftheir holes; a \ery favourite subject with the carvers (130). AtWorcester Adam is eating his apple, and a pretty young Eveholds hers in her hand; the devil has a semi-human head anda fascinating smile (131). In both churches the Expulsion is depicted. At Ely the guilty pair are shrinking from a stern angel with a large sword (132). On the left supporter Adamwith his right foot is driving a spade into the ground; on theright supporter is Eve and her distaff; it is the time" When .\clam delved and Eva span."Both appear to have children assisting them in their work.*At Worcester Adam and Eve look almost as cheerful o\erthe expulsion as does the angel (133). The chcf-d'auvrc of theEly craftsman is the representation of Xoah in the Ark. TheArk is a castellated craft with three towers, emblem of theTrinity in Unity, floating on a stormy sea as does God's Churchin a tempestuous world; on the right and left are the dovewith palm-branch in mouth, and the raven feeding on carrion,

• When a woman was not on her feet at work, she was expected ever

to be spinning: no woman sat with her hands idle in her lap; where our grandmothers knitted, their grandmothers span. "Go spin, you jade, gospin " was the advice of the Earl of Pembroke when he drove the Abbessof Wilton out of her nunnery at the Dissolution.OLD TKSTAMENT SUHJKCTS 131emblematic of those who enter or refuse to enter tlic Church( 134). The dove and raven occlu- as the supporters of a misericord in Beverley Minster; on a doorway of Lyons cathedralis a raven feeding on a dead hare. Two misericords at Worcester illustrate Genesis xxii: "And Abniliam look llie wood for llu; Inirnl offering and laid it uponIsaac his son; and lie look the fire in liis liand and a knife; and they wentIkHIi of them to^i^ether. And Abraham l)uilt an altar, and laid the wood in order, and bound Isaac his son, and laid him on the altar ii])on the wood. And Abraham stretched forth his hand and took the knife to slay his son. And the angel of the Lord called unto him out of heaven and said, ' Abraham,Abraham.' And he said, ' Here am I.' And he said, ' Lay not thine handupon the lad.' And Abraham lifted up his eyes, and behold behind him aWorcesterram caught in a thicket by his horns. And Abraham went and took the ram and ofifered him up for a burnt offering in the stead of his son." On the first misericord Isaac bears two fa*ggots of wood onhis shoulders, which, to strengthen the sj'mbolism, are arrangedin the form of a cross; Abraham bears the fire in his left handand a sword in his right (134). In the other is seen the altar with the fa*ggots beneath ready to be lighted; Isaac kneels on the altar, pleading for mercy; Abraham with uplifted swordis about to slay, but the sword point is gripped by a handissuing from the clouds; the ram has arrived; and behind is thebush (135). The next example, also from Worcester, on theleft shews Moses, who as usual has horns, and who holds in his left hand the two tables of the law; on the right is Aaron;132 WOOD CARVINGS IX KXCII.ISH CIIURCIIKSOLD TK.STA^fI:NT SHIllKf TS 13^134 WOOD CARVINC.S IN KXC.LISII CIIUKCIIKSElyin the centre, on a- pillar, stands the c;ulclen calf, which, iiowever,lias the body and legs of a bird (135). Behind is probabl)'Joshua, who, as the minister of Moses, had gone up w ith himinto the mount of God. A misericord in 15everle\- Minsterrefers to Caleb and Joshua, who were sent out b\- Moses to spy out the land of Canaan (135): "And they came unto the brook of Eshcol, and cut down from thence a branch with one cluster of grapes, and they bare it between two upon astaff. And they went and came to Moses and to Aaron and to all theconj:jregation of the children of Israel, and said. We came unto the land whither thou sentest us, and surely it floweth with milk and honey; and thisis the fruit of it."WorcesterWorcesterAN'orcesterBeverley ^linster136 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCIII':SThe two spies, with the single enormous bunch of grapes, arealso represented at Ripon and Hoogstraeten, Belgium. By dintof a little ingenuity this subject was given a m^'stic meaning.The juice of the grape is the blood of Christ; and as the juiceis contained in the berries, the bunch of grapes symbolises thebody of Christ. Furthermore, one bearer of the bunch of grapesfrom Canaan turns his back to the bunch of grapes, which is Christ; the other turns his face to them; so the Jews turnedtheir back on Christ, but Christians look to Him as Lord,Accordingly, on the reliquary of the true cross at Langrcs, thebearer in front wears the conical cap of the Jews. Both at Ri[)on and Hoogstraeten again appears the city of Gaza, andRiponits great gateway minus its doors (136). It was there that theyof Gaza" compassed in Samson and laid wait for him all nijjht, saying, In the morning, when it is day, we shall kill him. And Samson lay till midnight,and arose at midnight, and took the doors of the gate of the city, and the two posts, and went away with them, bar and all, and put them upon his shoulders, and carried them up to the top of a hill that is before Hebron." Samson is Our Lord, and Gaza is the tomb where the Jewsthink they have buried Him for evermore; but before daybreak He breaks forth from the sepulchre, and like Samsongoeth forth to the hills, which are Heaven.*

screenThis subject occurs also in a hollow molding of the Kirkham chantryn at Paignton, r. 1526. —(i. C. D.()I,I) Ti:sTAMKNT SUHII-CTS n7The hiiulinL;" of Samson is slu'wii on a misericord in IIcrcTordcathedral. The stor)' is continued on a misericord at Gloucester,where Delilah is seen cutting off his hair herself (137). It is also represented over the doorway of the south aisle of York Minster; and on misericords in Amiens cathedral, Montbcnoit, Doubs,and 1 loot^stractcn, l^cli;ium."And she made him sleep upon her knees; and she called for a man, and she caused him to shave off the seven locks of his head; and she beganto afllicl him, and his strcnL;th went from him." Very frequently the strauL^iing of a lion is depicted. Wherethe victor is a man of mature ace, or bearded, the reference isCdoucesterprobabi}' to Samson; e.g., in Beverley St Mar}- and El)- and in the charming carx'ing at Norwich (138)."Then went Samson down, and his father and mother, to the vineyardsof Timnath; and behold a ) oung lion roared against him. And the Spirit of the Lord came mightily upon him, and he rent him as he would haverent a kid, and he had nothing in his hand; but he told not his father or his mother what he had done." On the other hand when a \-outh is represented, it is morelikely that David is meant; t\g., at Sherborne (112)."And David said unto Saul, Thy servant kept his father's sheep, andthere came a lion and a bear, and took a lamb out of the flock. And I went after him and smote him, and delivered it out of his mouth; andwhen he arose against me, I caught him by his beard and smote him andslew him."i:;8 WOOD CARVINCS I\ KNCLISII CHURCHESThe matter is comi)licatccl yet further by the fact that a similarexploit is told of Richard Cceur-de-Lion, and is depicted hereand there, e.g., on incised tiles. When told of Samson or David,the story is typical of the power of Christ to deliver the Christianfrom the power of evil. In several cases the slaying of a giant is represented, e.g., at Gloucester and Westminster; and the reference may be to the slaving of Goliath by David; but it is quite as likely that the incident comes from scjme such story as Va/eu/ine and Orsonor Jack and the Beanstalk. At Gayton, Northants, is depictedthe difficult subject of the death of Absalom.* There is a superb representation of the Judgment of Solomon at Westminster and another at Worcester (139). In the latter the king,Norwichflanked by his officials, sits beneath a tabernacle of characteristic fourteenth century type of cusped ogee arches with foliated crockets on arch, pinnacle and finial, battlemented above, andsupported b\- staged buttresses. On the left is the woman whose" child died in the night, because she overlaid it. And she arose at midnight,"says the other, "and took my son from beside me while thine handmaidslept, and laid it in her bosom, and laid her dead child in my bosom. Andwhen I rose in the morning to give my child suck, behold it was dead. 15ut when I had considered it in the morning, behold it was not my son which I did bear. And the other woman said, .\ay; but the living is my son, andthe dead is thy son. And this said, No, but the dead is thy son and the hving is my son. Thus they spake before the king. Then said the king, * On a misericord in Dordrecht cathedral is carved the story of Jael andSisera; Jael is driving a large nail into Sisera's head with a mallet. —G. C. D.OLD TF.STAMKNT SUIMKCTS 139140 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHKSRiponBring me a sword. And they brought a sword before the king. And tl.c kings.iid, Divide the hving child in two, and give half to the one, and half to theother. Then spake the woman, whose the living child was, unto the king, for her bowels yearned upon her son, and she said, O my lord, give her the living child and in no wise slay it. But the other said, Let it be neither mine nortliine, but divide it. Then the king answered and said. Give her the living child and in no wise slay it; she is the mother thereof And all Israel heard of the judgment which the king had judged; and they feared the king, for they saw that the wisdom of God was in him, to do judgment."The official on the right has ju.st handed over a lari;e livingchild, who is very much alive, and kicking vigoroush'; whilethe other woman has a diminutive dead baby in swaddlingclothes.RiponOLD 'i'I';.stami:nt sui'.ji'.cts 141 At Ripon the artist has tackled a most (Hfficult bit of perspective. Down below is a tempestuous sea and a fish waiting toenL;ulf Jonah, who is beiiiL^ cast overboard by a crew of three men from a shi|); note the shrouds, the crow's nest on the topof the mast, and the hii;h stern with the tiller (140}. In thenext example the fish is castinc; up Jonah, and the projihetclin<^s tightl}' to tlie rock\' shore, on which are jjinc trees. Amisericord in Lincoln Minster ma_\" be descri])ti\e of the stor)' ofJudith and 1 lolofcrnes," w lio look great cleliL^hl in licr, .iiicl diank much more wine tlian he had(hunk at any time in one day since he was l^orn. And lie slc|)t. 'I'hcn Ju(hth came to the pillar of the bed, which was at I lolofernes' head andtook down his fauchion from thence, and approached to his bed and said, Stren,>;thcn mc, () Lord dod of Israel, this day. And she smote twice uponhis neck with all her mi},du, and she took away his head from him, and gaveHoloferncs his head to her maid." Subjects from the Apocr}'piia, howe\er, are represented scj \-eryseldom that this identification must be regarded as doubtful.142CHAPTER XIVNEW TI-:ST.\:\IEXT SUBJECTSSCEXKS from the New Testament are comparatively few. AtLincoln the Annunciation is represented. The favourite subjectof the three Kings of the East bringing gifts at the Nativity is also represented at Lincoln. Shepherds, three in number, areshewn at Gloucester,* gazing up with astonishment, as does their dog, at the Star of licthlchem; thc\' all have crooks and theimplements of their trade, including a tar-bo.x to dress sores onthe sheep (142). The Circumcision is represented at Worcester;(ilouccsterthe little child stands on an altar, and the priest, with horns to shew that he is of priestl\' caste, holds a knife in his right hand(143). The companion picture represents the Presentation in theTemple; the child stands before an altar, the priest and themother behind him. Over the altar is a censer or a suspendedpy.x; on the altar is a single candle. Above, and to the right, * There is a good painting of this subject on a window splay at co*ckingchurch, Sussex. — (i. C. I).NKW Ti:STAMENT ST IM I".(:TS M3Worcesteris a foliated corbel, which being an architectural member, heresignifies the Temple. .At I^ly is a naive attempt to depict thedeath of John the Baptist. On the left Herod and Herodia.sare seated at a ro)-al bancptet, while the daughter of Herodias"dances," or as another translation has it more correctly,"tumbles" before them. In the centre John has left a castel- lated gaol; the executioner with one hand seizes him by thehair, and with the other uplifts his sword to strike; in front kneels the damsel with the charger. On the right she hands to her mother the head in a charger (144). A misericord in Winchester College chapel ma\' refer to the j^arable of the GoodWorcestert44 WOOD CARVIN(;S IX KXGLISII CUURCIIKSNiovv 'n;sTAMi;N'T .sui;ji;c'is 145Slicphcrd. In the centre;i C()inUr)-inan with his hat tied mulerhis chin is carninsj;" a sheep under each arm; while on the i'it;ht another shepherd has apparently run off with the sheei) on liis shoulder, and has dropped his crook in ahum at the detection ofthe theft. But on the left sup[)orter is a fi^uic who seems tohave no connection with the parable; so that it may be but apicture of country life, it is possible that the head of Our Lordis portrayed here and there; e.g., on a misericord at Minster inThanet where on either side are two coarse faces of low tyjje,which may represent the two thieves. At Gayton, Northants,three female figures in long robes under arcading have beentaken to be the Three Marys. At Lincoln the Resurrection is depicted; on a supporter Christ appears to St Mary Magdalene.At Sherborne the Last Judgment is represented; on either sideare the dead rising from their graves and holding out theirhands in entreaty to Our Lord, whose feet rest on the rainbowor vault of heaven, and who shews the wounds on His handsand feet (146). hi a beautiful series of bosses in the vault of thefourteenth century church of the Celestins at Avignon Our Lordis represented in the apse shewing His wounds, while on theminor bosses around angels bear the instruments of the Passion.These are held by one of the cherubim w ith four wings, in aChester misericord (146). The wood vault of the presbytery ofWinchester cathedral is covered with paintings of the instru-ments of the Passion; so also the back bench on the northernside of the nave at P'ressingfield, Suffolk. On a misericordin Chester cathedral the angels are shewn watching by theSepulchre; at Lincoln there is a representation of the Ascension.At Lincoln, the cathedral church of Our Lady, two misericords depict the Assumption and the Coronation of the BlessedVirgin. At Chester is a subject which is usually described asthe Virgin and the Child; but Mr G. C. Druce has pointed outthat the central figure on the right is a crowned king, and thatthe two central figures are seated side b}' side; therefore thesubject may be the Coronation of the Virgin; in which case,however, one would expect the flanking figures to be wingedangels (146).Many New Testament subjects are never represented at all in medi;eval art. Representations of the miracles, which arecommon in the Early Christian art of the Catacombs, are later almost unknown; such examples as the healing of the paral)'tic,the woman with the issue of blood and the man born blind,the resurrection of the centurion's daughter and of the son of thewidow of Nain occur in the thirteenth century art of France, buteven there are rare. As a rule, only two epochs of Our Lord's life 19SherborneChesterChesterNEW TKSTAMI'XT SUItJKCTS I47arc represented pictorially, His infanc)' and I lis Passion; llic in- termediate period is passed over; practically the only exceptionsarc representations of the Baptism, the Tem|)tation and theTransfit^uration, and the Marriage at Cana. Other scenes fromthe intermediate period of His life do indeed occur, but not somuch to illustrate the life of Christ as that of some other actorin the Biblical drama; c.^:, in a church or a window dedicatedto St Peter the call of the Apostles may occur; or the raisinj^ ofLazarus in connection with the two Marys. The f(jllowinf( arethe only scenes which are commonly represented in the art ofthe Middle Ai;es: I. In the Karly Life of Christ; the Nativity,the Adoration of the Shepherds, the Massacre of the Linocents,the Flight into Egypt, the Circumcision, the Magi, the Presentation in the Temple; II. In His Preaching Life; the Baptism, theWedding at Cana, the Temptation, the Transfiguration; HI. InHis Last Da}-s; the Entry into Jerusalem, the Last Supper, theWashing of P'eet, the Passion with all its details, the Descentfrom the Cross, the l^urial, the Resurrection, His Appearances,and the Ascension. It was these scenes and none other thatthe Church dwelt on at Christmas, Epiphany, Lent, Holy Weekand the following week; these too were the chief subjects of themiracle plaj-s and mysteries. The sculptors carved what theChurch set forth at her great festivals;* not what they read in the New Testament, for they could not read.

• On the services at these festivals see Male, p. 236.

14^5chai'T1-:r XVMIRACLE PLAYSA CERTAIN number of the designs are no doubt taken from orinspired by the old Miracle Plays and Moralities which are saidto have been introduced into England in the eleventh centuryand to have been performed in the churches so late as themiddle of the sixteenth centur\-. At Beverley the canons themselves took part in these plays, and accounts are preservedgiving the cost of the items of the performance.* In these playsthe Devil was usually the protagonist, and was a jovial fellow.Ludlowvery popular with the audience. Punch, the descendant of theancient Iniquity, is to this day carried off by the devil at the endof each performance, in compliance with ancient custom. Onamisericord in Bevcrle}' Minster a miser is counting his mone)',while a devil is crouching to seize him; on the same misericordSatan with uplifted mace is pursuing and about to strike downalost soul. At Caversham, Westminster and Ludlow (148) thedevil is carrying off various victims to the maw of hell, justas in the moralities.

• See Mr Leach in the Surtees volumes.

149CHAPTl^R XVITHE SAINTS AND DOCTORS OF THE CHURCHIn the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the screens of ourchurches, great and small, were panelled with painted figuresof the prophets, evangelists, inart\'rs and doctors of the Church.*In the windows the design of the tracery was revolutionisedand the area of stained glass enormously enlarged in order toprovide tier upon tier of the saints and doctors of the Church.So it was in stone in the niches of the Lady chapels of Ely andco*ckinstonWestminster, the facades of Wells, Salisbury and Lichfield, andthe reredoses of Christchurch, Milton, St Alban's, Winchester,Southwark, New College and All Souls', Oxford. On themisericords such representations are very few. Of the evangelists, St ]\Iatthew occurs on misericords at co*ckington,Christchurch, and St Gregory, Norwich; and St Mark at thetwo latter. St Luke occurs at co*ckington; he is shewn seated

• See G. E. Fox in the Victoria History of Norfolk, ii. 547; and DomBede Camm in Part III. oi Rood Screens and Rood Lofts^ by F. Rligh Bond,

150 WOiJl) CARXIXGS IN KN(;LISII CIIUKCIIKSand writing his Gospel; and that there shall be no mistake aboutit, his s)-mboI, a winged ox, is rejjeated twice and the wordsSANCTUS LL'CAS are inscribed above (149).* At Worcester is a personage writing a book, the inkstand being held b)' an eagle; it ma)- therefore be meant for St John; but if so, what is thesignification of the little bird being seized by a small beast or snake whose head jDrotrudes beneath the writer's hood? (151)(The right supporter is identified by Mr C. B. Shuttleworth as a representation of ferreting rabbits.) At Lincoln is shewn acastle gate; two men are piling up fa*ggots and blowing up a fire with a bellows beneath a cauldron in which stood a figure nowgone. Mr W. H. St John Hope suggests that the reference maybe to St John Evangelist, who, according to a tradition preservedb\' Tertullian and Jerome, was thrown b)' command of theEmperor Domitian into a cauldron of boiling oil placed before the Porta Latina, but emerged unharmed. Our English calendarstill counts Ma\- 8, " St John ante port. Lat.," among its festivals; and ever)' )-ear St John's College, Cambridge, observes its annualcommemoration of benefactors on the festival of " St Johnbefore the Latin Gate." The identification of the misericordat Lincoln is rendered the more probable by the fact that St John was the name-saint of John W'elburne, Precentor ofthe cathedral, who presented the stalls; he died in 1380. StGeorge, the patron saint of England, naturall)- occurs frequently.He is shewn in Norwich cathedral in one of the finest of all themisericords; the dragon grips a lamb in his claws and St Georgeis driving a spear down his gullet (2). At Stratford-on-AvonSt George tramples on the dragon and impales it with his spear;while the beautiful princess whom he has rescued kneels behindand pra)-s an.viously for the success of her preserver (15 i); thebeautiful princess occurs also in St George's, Windsor. Sometimes the knight is on horseback, as at Gloucester. At Chichesteris a misericord supposed to represent a lad)' fighting a lion, or else the more usual subject of St George and the dragon(151). If, however, it were St George, he would not be in flowingrobes, but in armour. And if it were a lady, she would keepher feet under her dress. It may be a representation of anangel depicted in the earlier manner; it was not till c. 1350 that angels were " woman ised "

before that they were depicted as a

sort of sexless men. Or it may be a monk or ecclesiastic; andif so, symbolises the Church attacking the Evil Principle. StGabriel appears on a supporter in the scene of the Annunciation* Originally the sculptors and carvers had no patron saint of their gilds; later they joined with the painters in the patronage of St Luke,W'di'CcsUtStr;Uf()ril-on-A\onChichcijtcr152 WOOD CARVINGS IN KNGLISH CIIl'RCUKSat Lincoln. At Slierbornc a maiden with flowing liair and circlet on her forehead appears kneeling in prayer upon a prostratedragon; this would represent St Margaret, into whose prison adragon was introduced; the beast swallowed her whole, butwhen St Margaret made the sign of the cross within him, thedragon brake asunder and she emerged unhurt (152). At Kly is shewn a horseman with long spurs, and a cripple with a largehead; the latter has a crutch, inserted to make it clear that he is a beggar. The knight holds something now broken off (153).The reference is to St Martin, who was originally a gay youngofficer in the Guards. One da\', when riding, a naked beggaraccosted him, and he cut his cavalry cloak in two with his swordand gave one half to the shivering beggar. That night he hadShci bornea dream and saw Our Lord, to whom it was that he had givenrelief. This scene occurs akso in stained glass at co*ckington,Devon. At Ely a misericord depicts the favourite legend of StGiles or .Lgidius, an abbot who in the sixth or eighth centurylived a hermit's life in the forest of St Gilles in Provence. Tohis quiet cell the beasts of the forest made resort; and on oneoccasion a great king—Childebert or Theodoric or the King ofthe Visigoths—while hunting in the forest, shot at a hind whichhad taken refuge with St Giles, but mis.sed the creature andwounded the heVmit in the leg, so that he was lame ever after. In the centre is seen the hind trustingly laying its head on StGiles' knee, who is telling his beads; on the left supporter is ahunter with bended bow, the arrow from which is quivering in the hermit's leg; on the right is another hunter (153). Another

154 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHESmisericord at Ely ma\- perhaps depict some other story of StGiles. On the left are hinds chased by two hounds; in the centrehorse and rider have had a bad fall; on the right is a monk or awoman praying at an altar, on which is a missal; above is an arch,parapets and windows denoting " church " (98). At El}' is a miseri-cord in which a young man is making proposals to a maiden whoclasps her hands in pra}-er (153). Perhaps tliis is a reference tothe monkish legends of the virgin queen, the abbess and patronsaint of El}-. Twice she was married, they say, against her will,and twice she resisted her husbands' entreaties and remaineda maid. Or the reference ma}' be to some country maid whofollowed St Etheldreda's virtuous example. (The left supporterconsists of a skull wreathed with foliage.) Chester cathedralChesterwas originally dedicated to St VVerburgh; and one of themisericords depicts a favourite story about her miraculous gifts.It seems that she was Prioress of the religious house at Weedon,Xorthants. in the seventh centur}-, and was pra}ed to free thecrops from a devastating flock of wild geese. She bade themcome to her, and shut them up for the night in a stable. Whenshe came in the morning to let them out, one was missing, whichthe other geese told her one of her servants had killed andcooked. She restored the cooked goose to life and it went offwith its companions, and the crops thenceforth were inviolate sofar as wild geese were concerned (154). In the Chester miseri-cord the centrepiece shews two groups; in one is a female figurewith a crook or crosier, standing near what looks like a fontthe other shews a kneeling man, perhaps the thief returning theHi "ham Ferrerslle\L'rlc)' AlinblLTSt David's15(3 WOOD CAUVIXCS IX l.NOLI.sII CIILKCIIKSstolen goose. In the left supporter the thief is in the poundwith the geese; in the right-hand supporter he is confessingto a person who holds a staff. Of Mildred of Kent, cousinof St Wcrburgh, the emblem is a hart. This occurs on a misericord in the church of Minster in Thanet. The stor)- is that Mildred's mother was given b)' King Ivdgar I. of Kent as much land in Thanet for her monastery as her tame hart couldcompass in a single run; and that the hart made a record runfor the purpose, the course of which is said to be marked in anancient map in the possession of Trinity Mali, Cambridge, copiedin 1414 from a much earlier map.* The X'ernicle, or handkerchiefof St X'eronica miraculousl)- imprinted with the visage of OurLord possibl}' occurs on one or two misericords; e.^':, at IlighamFerrers (155). Of the Fathers and Doctors of the Church, so commonly painted on the wooden screens, none appear on themisericords, unless the angel holding a heart, seen in l^everleyMinster, be the emblem cf St Augustine (155). At St David'sa misericord is said to represent the sea-sickness of St Govan,uncle of St David, who was sent w ith two disciples to Rome bySt Elfynt to obtain a correct form of the mass (155).

• Miss Arnold Foster's Dcdiaxtions, 360.

157CHAPTER X\I1SYMBOLISMSymbolism is consi^'cuously rare on the misericords; tliey werecarved by simple folk for simple folk. The symbolism of thepeaco*ck has been already referred to (page 5). At Lincoln is a knight in armour fighting seven dragons; at New College, Oxford,is a seven-headed hydra; both probably denote the seven deadlysins. A naked child issuing from a spiral shell and confrontinga dragon or a wyvern occurs at Lincoln and elsewhere, denotingBeverley Minsterthe conflict of purity and vice. In Beverley Minster there is a pretty carving of the hen and chickens; the reference ma\- beto St Matthew xxiii. ^/ and St Luke xiii. 34; this subject is also an emblem of spring (157). The hen and chickens wasadopted as a device by James IV. of Scotland in 1460, and byCatharine de Medici and others. The Lamb and Flag is rare; an example occurs at Passenham, Northants; it is of course the158 WOOD CAkVlNCJS IN IIXGLISI! CI lURCllKSraschal Lamb. The Lamb and I'^lag was the coat of arms ofthe Templars and the crest of the Merchant Taylors. It is a common inn sign; at Swindon the lamb has a spear, to whichis ap|)ended a red, white and blue streamer. Apart from theabove and a few others, symbolism is non-existent, with the oneconspicuous example of the animals of the Bestiaries, which are of course symbolical in the vcr)- highest degree.•59CIIATTKR XVIIISATIR1<: ON JOUSTS AND TOURNAMKNTSOf all the institutions of chivalry the most highly esteemed ainl respected was the joust or single coinbat, and the tournament or contest of two parties of knights. But the common folk had noesteem or respect either for one or the other. The tournamentinvolved too many figures for representation on a misericord; but the joust could well be depicted. At Worcester a joust doesactually take place between two knights and is car\-ed mostWorcesterspiritedl}-; but the point of the scene is not the victory of oneknight and the discomfiture of the other, but the horror-strickenexpression of the man with the drums, in danger of being crushedby the overthrow of the defeated knight's charger (159). In theexample illustrated from Bristol the scene is patent!}' a parod}-(160), as it is in another l^ristol misericord, where the two combatants, each armed with a spear, are mounted, one on a goose, theother on a hog. The artist prefers, howe\er, not to representi6o WOOD CARVIN(;.S IX F.XCLISII CIIURCHKSthe riders as human bein.f^s at all; no civilised man in his senses, he thinks, would encjaire in these ridiculous contests with all theirliri>toltedious etiquette of observances. So the joust becomes a combatbetween two savage men, or wodehouses, as at Chester; orQueen Mary's Psalterbetween a wodehouse and a wyvern as at Manchester; or betweena wodehouse and a co*ckatrice, as at L^aversham, or between a camel and a unicorn, as at Manchester; or between a camel andSATIRE ON JOUSTS AND T( )UKX AM I'.NTS l6la dragon, as at Lincoln and Rip(Mi; or very frctiiicnlly betweena lion and a dragon, or between two dragons and wyverns.Some of the illustrations no doubt burlesque the cx[>loits ofRichard I. and his crusaders. In an illustration in a Psalter ofQueen Mary, which was illuminated at the beginning of thefourteenth century, the combatants are sliewn one with [heChristian sword, the other with the Saracenic scimitar; in another one rider is a stag and has the Christian lance andshield, the other is a monke\' with the Saracenic scimitar andcircular targe (i6o).1 62CHAPTKR XIXSATIRE ON RELIGIONIn the latter days of the English Catholic Church, it has been said,the chief object of art was not so much to edify as to satirise andridicule. Carving and sculpture became weapons of offence,wielded by Christian against Christian. Monks hated friars, anddespised the secular clergy, our parish priests; the parish priestsowed the loss of the great tithes of many of their churches to the monks, and of marriage and confessional fees to the friars, who undersold them: the parish priest hated monk and friar alike. This view was set forth strongly by Viollet-le-Duc, andseems now to be almost accepted as a truism. It is certainlygrossly exaggerated. In the literature of the fourteenth andfifteenth centuries there is indeed plentiful satire of ecclesiastical dignitaries, sometimes good-natured, as in Chaucer, sometimesfierce and malevolent, as in Langland's Piers Plowuian. Butecclesiastical art, whether in wood or stone or glass, was put upby and at the expense of ecclesiastics, at any rate in the greatchurches of the monks and canons. It is hardl)- likely that theywould allow, still less that they would pay, for themselves to besatirised b\' their own workmen. .And this is borne out by facts. To read what people say about the subjects of the carvings in our churches, one would imagine that satirical subjects are themost common of all. As a matter of fact they are comparativelyrare. And, in addition, in several cases instances are quotedas satirical which only seem satirical because the)- are misunderstood. Thus on the left supporter of a misericord at NewCollege, Oxford, a monk is seen seated, hearing the confessionof a novice, and giving him absolution, while a mischievous little devil throws ridicule on the whole function, standing on thepenitent's head and pulling the hood over his eyes. This is all very well; but as a matter of fact the scene is often representedelsewhere, e.g., on such a Seven Sacrament font as that at Westhall, Suffolk,* and the meaning always is that in genuineand heartfelt repentance the devil comes out of a man; and so

• Illustrated in the writer's Fonts and Font Covers, 261.

SATIRK ON ki':i,i(;inN 63he is re I ) rose 11 ted as departing; fioni the penitent. In theexample at New ColleLiC the right supporter shews the penitentinflicting on himself by a scourge the penance which has beenordered by his confessor. In a large number of instances theecclesiastic satirised is preaching; he is almost always repre- sented as a fox. At Boston he is a fox, and is seated in a chair,liostonand in his left hand holds a crosier; he is therefore eitlier a bishop or an abbot; he reads from a book held by an ass to a congregation consisting of a co*ck and five hens; he has seizedthe co*ck b\' the neck, but still goes on reading or preaching to the edification of the hens (163). At Christchurch he is seen in a cowl, preaching from a pulpit, while behind a diminutive co*ck acts as clerk (163). AtBeverley St Mary he is in a cowl, preachingfrom a pulpit to two ecclesiastics, who holdscrolls in their hands; on the ground sit twomonkeys, also holding scrolls. In BeverleyMinster there is a cowled fox who is preachingfrom a pulpit to a congregation of geese; his friend the ape acts as clerk, and has killed onegoose, which hangs from a stick slung overthe ape's shoulder; the preacher holds a rosaryin his right hand (164). At Bristol also a cowledfox preaches to a congregation of geese. Ona finely carved misericord at Ripon Re}'nardpreaches to a co*ck and a goose (164); very man}'other examples might be quoted. Now what do thc}' amount to? Not to satire on religion, but to satire on preaching, which is notthe same thing at all. It is entirely a modern idea that true andundefiled religion consists in sitting still in church once a week andbeing talked to. It was an innovation, and not a welcome one, to conservative Churchmen in thc twelfth centur\- to hear that AbbotChristchurch164 WOOD CARVINf.S IN ENGLISH CHURCHESHeverley MinsterSamson of Ely had taken to preaching in his abbe)' church, andthat in EngHsh. The English laity indeed, then as now, liked preaching; and in one instance they presented their parishpriest, because, as they told the archdeacon, he preached so seldom; he was a simple man, they said, and a poor preacher,but they liked to hear him. Bishop after bishop tried their hardest to get the priests to preach, even going so far as to writetheir sermons for them; but the parochial clerg\- offered a stubborn resistance, and still more the occupants of the stalls in the monastic and canons' churches. The preaching so muchdesired had to be supplied, and was supplied to a large e.xtent,RiponSATIRK ON RI'.I.IcrON 165indcpeiulciilly of tlic j);irish priests and monks aiul canons. It was supplied from the thirteenth century by the l^lack h>iars or Dominicans, the Grey Friars or Franciscans, the White l^Viars or ("armch'tcs. Crosses were put up b)' the parishes all overthe country, b)' tiie roadside or in the churchward, and therefrom the friars the parishioners fj^ot the f^reatly desired sermons. Hut all this made the practice of prcachins^ onl\' the more (jdious to monk, canon and parish priest. And it would seem that theyallowed their feelings about preaching and preaching friars tofind a vent in such misericords as those in Beverley St Mary andthe Minster, Ripon and Boston. Sometimes the very text of thepreaching friar is given: it formerly was to be seen in a windowin St Martin's, Leicester; " Testis est uiihi l^cus qiiaiii cupiain vos omncs visceribiis mcis "

" God is my witness how I desire

you with all my heart." But the last two words admit also ofbeing rendered " inside m\' stomach "and this was thought so excellent a ])unthat it occurs again and again. Again,all the Preaching orders were ordered bytheir founders to be mendicant; they wereto follow to the letter the injunctions givenby Our Lord when He sent forth Hisdisciples to preach, and they were to ha\e no private property. But the simplicit}- ofthe early days of St Francis and St Dominicsoon passed away, and the l^^riars' housesand churches became as rich and gorgeousas those of the monks or canons. In the later days the mendicancy of theFriars became a mock and pretence. So at Nantwich one of these ecclesiastics, cunning and rapacious,is represented with a fox's head, marching along with a goosein one hand and a hare slung on a stick in the other (165). In Beverley St Mary, two of them, again represented as foxes, seemto be receiving from their suj^erior, who is reading from a scroll, injunctions that they are to " take nothing for their journey buta staff only " (Mark x. 10); each fox holds in his hands a staff- of pastoral shape; but has provisioned himself for the journeywith a goose (166). At Beverley Minster the rosary in thepreacher's hand ma\- be intended to shew that he is a follower of St Domintc, who introduced the rosar)' to help his brethrento keep an accurate tale of their Paternosters and Ave Marias.On the other hand it occurs at Ely (153) and in other cases where no such reference is possible. In several examples monksand laymen alike are shewn on the wa\' to hell mouth; thereXantwich1 66 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENCLISH rilURCIIKSBeverley St Maryis no specially satiric force in this; it mereh' is a statement ofa plain fact that the virtue of his office will not protect anecclesiastic any more than a la}-man from the doom that awaitsthe evil liver. At Windsor a misericord shews three monks anda fox with a goose in his mouth—the conventional representationof a friar—being trundled off by a devil in a wheelbarrow tohell mouth: St George's chapel was served by Secular Canons,and the\- had no compunction in portraying the parlous condition of monks and friars. At Ely (i66) a man and a womanare seated together, presumably at church; he has a missal onhis knee, she has a rosar\'; but the\- arc attending neither toSATIRK ON Ki;r.I(;iON 167the one nor the other; their minds arc filled with bad thou^dits,and the Evil One has got them in his grasp. He has a repellentsensual visage and clawed fingers; what is probably a replica ofhim is carved at Over. A similar subject occurs at New College,Oxford, where, however, the demon has bat's wings. A picturein Notre Dame de Recouvrance, Jirest, portrays the devil noting down the idle words of two women who arc gossipingduring mass. The subject is often treated in sculpture, in theminiatures of missals, and in tapestry designs; it is thus referredto in a poem written by Pierre de Grosnet in 1553: " Notez en I'ecclise de Dieii Femmes ensemble cuiuetoyent. Le diable y estoit en ung lieu Escripvant ce qii'clles disoyenl. So far none of the satire is directed against the most sacredpart of Church ceremonial, the office of the Mass. On a cajjitalStrasburgfof Strasburg cathedral, however, there was formerlx' representedthe funeral of Re\'nard the fox (167). He is borne on a bier by theboar and the goat; the hare carries a taper, the wolf a cross, thebear the holy water and aspersoir; the ass chants the responsesfrom a service book resting on the head of a cat, and the stagchants the mass at an altar on which is a chalice and a service book. Here, however, the intention was not to throw ridicule on the Mass, any more than it was in the service held by theBoy Bishop on the Feast of Fools. It is difficult to say as much,however, of a misericord at Worcester, where a vested fox appears to be saying grace over what appears to be a sheep's headlying on an altar (92). At St David's is a goose with a humanhead to which, according to Professor Freeman, a fox in a cowl is offering the sacramental wafer. But as a matter of fact the foxis dressed as a woman, and what she holds is a platter and cake, not a paten and wafer.*

• Fryer, 52.

1 68CHAPTER XXSATIRE OX DOCTORS AXD DENTISTSSometimes the fox is in palmer's garb; there had grown upa class of professional pilgrims, who could be hired to go assubstitutes on pilgrimages, and were in no good repute. Thelaity in general came in for the lash just as much as the clergyand the pilgrim; especially that huge humbug, the media:valdoctor. He is most disrcspectfullx- represented as an ape. AtSATIKK ON DOCTORS A\l) DKNTISTS 169toad down his throat. I'owtlcrcd toad and such Hastinesses were to be found coininonly as ingredients in mediaevalmech'cines; a medi;eval patient did not beh'eve there wasstrength or virtue in medicine, unless it was nauseous. Thedoctor is very frequently [portrayed with a flask in his hand,in which case he is represented as an ape; t\/^., at licverleyMinster and St Mary's, Boston, Bristol, Cartmel, Faversham andManchester (75). On the Tortail des Libraires, Rouen, a flask is bein_<^ examined by a man with a c^oose's bod}% The flask was a"[lass vessel containing urine. Debased as was the medical ])ro- fession in the Middle Ages, )'et in one respect, the examinationof the urine, they were punctiliously careful. As early as thetwelfth century, Gilles de Corbeil, premier physician to PhilipAugustus of France, had written a volume of medical poetr\-,and one of its four books was entitled "Liber de urinis." Andin a thirteenth century version of the stor}- of Reynard the Fo.x,King Noble, the Lion, who is sick, details his s}-mptoms at vast length, till Rcj'nard interrupts him with"Aportez moi un orinal Et si verrai dedenz le mal."This done, Re}'nard sets to work in thoroughly professionalfashion: " Li orinax fu aportez. Nobles est en scant levez, Si a pissie plus t[uc demi; El dit Renard, IJien est issi. Lors le prent et au solcil va, L'orinal sus en haul leva, Moult le reyarde apertement, Torne et retorne moult sovcnt Por veoir s'il se torncroit." He takes the glass flask to the window, examines it b}' thelight passing through it, and watches whether it will changecolour or coagulate. The examination of two flasks of urineis illustrated on the frontispiece of a book on medicine published in 1487 by a celebrated Italian ph}-sician, BartolemeoMontagnana; and in one of the miniatures of a Book of Hoursbelonging to Anne of Brittany, the two patron saints ofmedicine, Cosmo and Damien, are dressed as ph\^sicians, andone of them is holding up to the light a glass flask of urine. Among the illustrations of a paper on a pontifical written in thefourteenth century are shewn a dropsical man come for adviceabout his disorder, and a crane who probably wants a bonelyo WOOD CARVINGS IN KNOLISII CHURCHESextracted from his throat; in both cases the doctor is an ape.*At Malvern the sick person is in bed, nude as usual; behind is the nurse; the inxalid appears to have swallowed one bii^ jufr ofmedicine, and is giving it back to the doctor, who is handingher another jugful. Xor docs the dentist fare any better; nayrather he fares worse, for he is represented at El\- as the devil himself ( 1 70). * Rev. E. S. Dcwick in Atr/iaoh\i;ia, liv.171CHAPTER XXISATIRE ON MUSIC AND DANCINGIn earlier clays the minstrel had held an honoured position in social life: he was a welcome guest at the baronial board; hesang the exploits of the knight and the praises of the lady; hewas the friend of prince and princess; knight and squire andlord and king themselves were proud of their acccjmplishmentsin minstrelsy; all Navarre re-echoed with the strains of amateurmusicians of the noblest rank. I'^ven in the fifteenth centurysome of their ancient repute survived; in Beverle\' the minstrels were still an important gild and presented a pillar to the newnave of their parish church; immortalising their generosity byhaving a group of statuettes of minstrels carved beneath thecapital of their pillar. But for the most part the noble professionof minstrelsy had fallen into disrepute. The minstrel had becomea mendicant, and ranked with the bearleader, the posture-makerand the street acrobat. The craftsmen who carved the misericordsare never tired of pouring contempt on him and his trade. Sopigs and goats and cats and hares and foxes and bears and asses, and, above all, apes, are seen pla\ing harp and bagpipes andfiddle and rebec and psaltery and flute and pipe and drum andhurdy-gurd}'. At Durham, Manchester and Bevcrle}' ]\Iinster a pig is plaj'ing the Jiarp. In Chichester cathedral a man is plaj-ing a small harp resting on his knee; this is the old English harp. In Beverley Minster it is the tall Irish harp, resting on the groundthis did not become popular till the end of the sixteenth century;these Beverley misericords were placed in the Minster in 1520, so that this is an early example (174). Unlike the modern harp,which is of French origin, it has a curved front pillar. Thepsaltery was a sound-box, usuall)' triangular, on which werestretched metal strings tightened by pegs; it appears on theright supporter of a misericord at Worcester cathedral; where a winged centaur plays it by striking the strings with the fingersof both hands. There is another example on the right supporterat Ely. The citJicni or gittcrn is pear-shaped, and like thepsaltery and lute, is played by the fingers. It is seen to the172 WUUb CARVINGS IN KNGLISII CIIUKCIIKSright at Lavenham (13). The male creature ridicules the ladyb}' playing on the bellows with a crutch as bow. The fiddle and the rebec were played with a bow. The fiddle had an oblong body and incurvations at the side. In Hereford cathedral(172) the cat appropriately plays the fiddle; while the goatsings and accompanies himself on the citolc. In Winchester andChichester cathedrals one pig sings, while another accompaniesit on the violin. Originally it was considered to be a high gradeinstrument. The Blessed Virgin, it was said, loved the sound ofthe violin; " La douce mere Dicii aiiia son dc viclcT At Worcesteran angel sits under a beautiful fourteenth century canopy, playingthe crozvde or crozuth{iyi). But the violin also fell into disrepute; in the end it became the instrument pla\-ed b)* blind beggars onSATikK ON musk; and dancixc; 173his snout and sin^s or s(|ucals (173). Music was common at banquets; so llic behaviour of the Httlc pigs may be emblematicof the behaviour of the majority of guests who go on fecch'nggreedily and pay no allcnlJDn to the music, l^ut as this subjectoccurs in the Bestiaries, it no doubt has a s\-nib<)lical meaning.Usually the pipe and tabor were played tt)gether. " Tabor is the French "tambour" and the luigiish "drum." Of all instru- ments the pipe and tabor were held to be the \ilest; their introlircnccster Winchester Cathedralduction into good houses had ruined better music—the cithern,lute, and violin. One poet, Englished by Mr Wildridge, wishes" God send to that man who first made tabor, Which should please none, mischief for his labour; When tightly stretched and struck a hearty blow, For half a leaL;ue you'll hear it as you go";1/4 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCIIKSwhile an Anglo-Norman poet vows that these fellows withtabors made such a hurricane that one would think it was thedevil's birthda\-; and that their heads ought to be beaten in witha club. Pipe and tabor are played by hares, bears, centaurs andclowns; there is an admirable ex- ample in the joust at Worcesterwhere, however, the pipe is replacedby a clarion^ and a fool plays thelinkers ox double drums (159). AtWestminster the tabor is beingpla}-ed by a naked devil (174). /Pipeand tabor are played by a fool at Beverley, and by composite creaturesat El\' and Chichester (13). Thebagpipes were described by a Frenchpoet of the thirteenth or fourteenthcentury as onh' fit for peasants. In Beverley Minster a pig trough is seen in the foreground; the old j^ig plays the bagpipes and the youngpigs dance to the music (174). At Ripon is a very spiritedrendering of the same subject; at Richmond, Durham Castleand W^estminster and Ciudad Rodrigo, Spain, the pig again is theW csUninslurr.everley Minsterperformer; evidently the squeal of a pig was considered to bea faithful rendering of the note of the bagpipes. At Bostonand Westminster a bear is the performer. On the other hand, on a corbel in Holy Trinity, Hull, the bagpipes are played bySATIRH ON MUSIC AN'I) I)A\<IN(; 175 an anL,fcl. The most bitiiii;" satiic on this objectionable iiistruinentis that seen on the supporter of a misericord in J^cverley Minster;where a do<^, employed as bai^pipes, is made to howl by an apebiting his tail (175;. It is possible that something of the kind was to be seen at mcdi;eval feasts. At any rate in pro- cessions in mediccval Belgiumand up to the nineteenth cen- tury one of the most popularcars was one containing an organ surrounded by twentycages, each containing a tomcat, whose tail was tied to a key of the organ, so that hesquealed when the key wasstruck.* Dancing had and lias neithercharm nor grace for commonfolk; dancing is only depictedto jeer at. In the opinion ofthe wood-carvers it was bestleft to pigs and bears and goatsand monkeys. A Chichestercarver expresses his viewsabout dancing quite clearly bydepicting the dancer as naked,except for a hood, and dancing with a beast. A supporter in Beverle)' Minster shews a man with a whip teaching a bear to dance; while the other supporter shews the successful result ofhis training, for the bear is dancing to the music of bagpipespla\-ed b)- an ape (104). * Maeterlinck, 12S.Beverley Minster176CHATTER XXIIMORAL LESSONSExcept at Lincoln and Worcester the wood-carvers shewedvery little inclination to utilise their art in familiarising the laitywith the story of the Bible or the lives of the saints. On theother hand they were quite ready and pleased to read thepeople moral lessons. And common folk being very stupidabout the meaning of pictures and allegories, as they arc still, the lesson had to be put in a plain, outspoken, graphic way,so that no one who saw thecarving should fail to understand or should misunderstandits meaning. So the morallessons are very clear indeed.Ever)- vice is shewn in its natural ugliness. A spade is a spade on the misericords.Vice is not shewn alluringand attractive as in the modern" problem play," but as dis- gusting. The representationsof drink, unchastity and therest are offensive and weremeant to be offensive. Thatis just the difference betweenthe modern play and themediaeval misericord; one is immoral but not offensivethe other is offensive but notimmoral. The sot is shewn what a beast he looks when he is drunk. In Beverley Minster the drunkard is shewn swilling beerfrom a flask, while a devil is at hand ready to carry him off (176).Attacks on chastity are shewn without any beating about thebush, whether the victim be a woman, as at Westminster, or aman, as at Windsor, where the subject occurs twice. At Ely thelady defends herself vigorously; she simultaneously bites herBeverley MinsterMORAL LKSSONS 177assailant's lluinib, pulls his haii- and sciatcJK's his face (177). Themanners of other at^es are not those of ours; it does not followthat the morals of those a<;"cs were on the low level of the manners. In a beautiful Hook of Hours of the fifteenth centur\',in the middle of pious pictures is a representation of I'"ebruary,in which a (gentleman and lad\- are warming themselves at afire; the latter has pulled her [)etticoats up abo\'e her knees;* no immoral sui^gestion, however, is intended; it is merely that manners have chani^ed; we are squeamish about such things.Squcamishness, however, is quite a modern virtue. Our fore- fathers, gentlemen and ladies alike, right up to the eighteenthcentury and later, were coarse, indelicate and outspoken to anama/.ing degree; even in comparatively modern times noscruples of delicacy deterred ladies of rank, 01 chemise in bed,from holding a levee of male friends in their bedroom. In mediaeval days prince and pauper alike were inconceivably dirtyand callous m their personal habits.+ From this it follows that what calls a blush to the cheek of modesty nowadays did nosuch thing in media^^val da>'s, which means that it did no harm; what is to us offensive and objectionable was nothing of thekind to the craftsmen who did the carving or the ecclesiastics who paid for it. No one nowadays can look without disgustat the treatment of some of the subjects in the misericords; ourancestors had strong stomachs, and being accustomed to see

• Illustrated in Champfleury. 26. t See Enlavt's Architecture Civile et Militaire, 95. 23

I/S WOOD CARVINCIS IN ENGLISH CHURCHESdecent people enjoying such representations and talking quitefrankly about them, the)' reall)' were not a penn)- the worse. What was a familiar sight and a familiar topic to lord and lady,priest and clown, ceased to be harmful; it is indelicacy madenovel and attractive that does mischief; we do not see the harmnowadays of seeing a young lady dccollctce to the utmost andclasped by a sheath-like gown which reveals every curve ofthe person; it is quite conceivable that such a vision mighthave wrought serious mischief to a mediiuval person unused toit. Habit and use arc of the essence of manners, if not ofmoralit)'; the sight of indecenc}' could do no harm to peoplewho were guilty ever\' day of what we regard as indecency, andwho talked about it quite freely without the slightest idea that there was an3'thing in it contrary to good taste. Good taste means the taste in vogue for the time being, and no longer; it is futile to look at medi;uval manners through modern spectacles.It may be thought that we have here exaggerated the coarse- ness of byegone manners; plent}' of examples could be adducedto prove that we have not done so as regards either noble lords and ladies, or clerics. As regards the former, the Chevalier dela Tour Landr\- wrote a book pour reuscigncmcut dc scs fillcs" to instruct his daughters, who were ladies of high rank; thefirst chapter of it is entitled "" Dii moinc qui fist fornication enI'cgliscy If a gentleman could write in this frank way to his daughters, need we be astonished that no one was surprised that such scenes as these were represented by the carvers of themisericords with total absence of reserve? And the priests were as little to be shocked as the lords and ladies. Some ofthem indeed had a pretty wit of their own, and had their ownjokes cut in wood, e.g., Guy de Munois, abbe de Saint-Germaind'Auxerre from 1285 to 1309, had his seal engraved with a representation of a monkey in an abbe's dress; Abbe de singe airmain dos scrre. And a bronze seal is in existence with an in- scription Le Seel De Levesqnc De La Cyte de Pinon; i.e., " theseal of the Bishop of Pinon "

on this seal is represented a cat with mitre and crosier; * a similar subject occurs on a miseri- cord at Boston, Lincolnshire (163). Such instances as these are important; for they tell us that what modern writers are pleased

to represent as bitter satires on the clergy are often no morethan good-humoured jokes made by the clerics on themselves.It is by no means safe to assume that such subjects are invari- ably intended to be satires on the corruption and vices ofmediaeval Churchmen.

• Cliampfleury, i v

MOKAI. LKSSONS •79Turning- to our iMit^lish iniscricords, the favourite subjectof all is the happy lioinc and its contrast. Where thin^^s j^owell, husband and wife work for the <^ood of the Iujusc. AtWorcester the husband has a spade, the wife is s])innin^f. In Beverley the wife appears to be holding a distaff; the husbandin one supporter is chopping firewood, in the cjther is bhjwingup a fire. In a delightful winter interior at Ripple the husbaiulis warming his toes at the fire on which the iron pot boils; the wife on the other side of the pot is spinning, while the cat, perched on her chair, is washing its paws ( 1 18). More often the scene is one of the unliappincss brought on a househcjld byan unthrifty, scolding, quarrelsome wife. On a misericord in Beverley Minster the happy and the unhapi\\- home are conCarlisletrasted; in the latter the wife has seized the husband b\- thehair and is giving him a sound drubbing; in the former thehusband is chopping firewood, the wife is pounding corn in a mortar (89). At Carlisle the woman has seized the man b}- the beard, while she belabours him with a utensil held in herright hand (179). Sometimes the husband has brought a stick to beat the wife with, and there is a struggle for it, as at Ely.As a rule the carver chivalrously awards the \ictory to the wife; e.g.^ at Sherborne, where the wife has obtained possession of thestick, and has got her husband down and is using it vigorously.Frequentl)' plates and dishes are flying about; as on a miseri- cord in Hereford cathedral where the cook or the wife is hurling a platter at a horrified man. In another the wife thrashes theK^O Wool) CAkVlXCS IN KNGLlSII ClIUkCHKShusband because he has brouglit home no game. But amusingas it ma)' be to watch the shrieking virago of a wife, villageopinion did not allow the sound doctrine of marital superiorityto be infringed too far; that would be to set a bad example to the other wives. If the scold will not take a thrashing, either she must be gagged and bridled, as at Haie-aux-bonshommes,liclgium, Minster in Thanet, and Ludlow (i8o), or wheeled off to the nearest duckpond. At Leominster the ducking stool still re- mains in the ciuirch in a good state of repair. It is represented ona misericord in Durham Castle chapel.* Next to drink, gamblingbreaks up most homes. At Gloucester two men seem to begambling with money or counters on the ground. At Windsora man and a woman are quarrelling over backgammon or tricLudlowtrac. At Eh', in the centre of the misericord, two men arc gambling; in the right supporter a man holds a goblet in his right hand and a big pitcher in his left; in the left supporteris seen the wife with a hive of honey upset; emblematic ofthe fact that all her savings have gone in drink and gambling(i8i). Nor does avarice escape. In Beverley Minster a man is counting the coins in his treasure chest; but down below lurks a devil on the point of seizing it and him. Avarice, bad enoughin a layman, was yet worse in a religious person. At Westminster one misericord shews a devil seizing a monk holding a bag from which the coins are dropping; among them are a gold

• This, however, may represent simply the wife having a pleasant ride and

the husband doing all the work.MORAL LI'.SSONS i8iangel and halfpennies of the time of Henry VIII. In the othera devil is carryini^ off the terror-stricken monk on his back,holdin.<^ the empty bag in his hand; another devil beating a drum leads the way to hell; a woman surx'eys the awful scenewith horror. Both in France and Manders the ape is thesymbol of avarice or of the usurer; in h'rance the same word,inagot, means either "an ape" or "a hoard "

in Flanders "aap"means either " an ape " or " a treasure." At Beverley St Maryis a strange misericord in which an ape offers a well-filled bag

to an ecclesiastic who has a coin in his hand (i8i). Greatestof all crimes in the eyes of a villager is to cheat a poor manl>everley St Maryl82 WOOD CARVINGS IN KNCLISII CIIURCIIKSof his beer. At Ludlow the artist takes exceptional pains in portraying the last end of the cheating alewife. She is beinghaled off to hell fire by a devil with one of her false measuresin her hand, and the carver bestows exceptional beauty on herperson, in order to punish her the more by the exposure of itone devil is reading aloud from a scroll the long list of hercheats, while another favours him with a screed on the bagpipesby way of accompaniment (148). Stealing butter and cream was a cardinal crime with a farmer's wife, that no decent creature would be guilty of; so the crime and its consequences are all referred to a monkey in one of the stalls in Lincoln Minster.Of animals the goat was the symbol of lechery and sensuality; and with it the hare, because of its habit of superfetation; theBevciley St M;iiytwo frequently occur together. The lecherous man is describedas follows by Spenser in the Faery Quecnc:"And next to him rode lustful Lecheryi'pon a teardcd i^oat^ wliose rugged hair And wolly eyes (the sign of jealousy)Was like the person self whom he did bear,Who rough and black and filthy did appear: Unseemly man to please fair ladies' eye; Yet he of ladies oft was loved dear. When fairer faces were bid standcn by. O who does know the bent of women's fantasy?"On a misericord at Beverley St Mar\- a naked man bestrides a goat, with a hare under his arm; on the left is David or Samson throttling a lion; between them is a king with crownMORAL LKSSONS I«3and .scci)tre (1^2). Hut aiiotluT fcaliii-e in these representationsof lechery is not so easy to explain, viz., that the lecherous manor woman is enveloped in a net. In Beverley St Mary the netis faintly seen on the chest and leg.s of the rider of the goatit is very clear at Worcester (183), where the rider is a woinan; on a corbel of Auxerre cathedral and at Stratford-on-Avona naked woman is mounted on a goat. On a inisericord in Norwich cathedral a man in a net, holding a hare in his left hand,rides on a stag. In the quire of York Minster a man in a net bestrides a goose.* In cases where the rider is a woman, a remarkable explanation is offered by Dr Oscar Clark from an ancientNorse folk-tale, of which there are several different versions: "When King Froy, or, according to other accounts, a King Sigtriid, far^-•w^^ '-^Worcesterback in the times of heathenism, ruled in the Nortli, the population, duringa long peace, had so greatly increased that one year on tlie coming of winter the crops of the preceding autumn were already consumed. Theking therefore summoned all the commonalty to an assemljly for the purposeof finding a remedy for the impending evil, when it was decreed that all the old, the sickly, the deformed, and the idle should be slain and ofteredto Odin. When one of the king's councillors, named -Siustin, returned fromthe assembly to his duelling in Uppland, his daughter Disa inquired of him what had there taken place, and as she was in all respects wise andjudicious, he recounted to her what had been resolved on. On hearing it, she said she could have given better counsel, and wondered that among so many men there was found so little wisdom. These words reached at length the ears of the king, who was angry at her boldness and conceit,

• Illustrated in lYoz-wic/i and Xorfolk Aniiq. Procct'dt/ii^s, ii. 251; and

Browne's I'c;-/- Jf/;!S/rf\ ii. 149.184 WOOD CARVINGS IN KXCLISII CHURCIIKSand declared he would soon put her to her wit's end. He promised to take her to his counsel, but on condition that she should come to him not onfoot nor on horseback, not drivinj,^ nor sailing, not clad nor unclad, not in a year nor a month, not by day nor by night, not in the moon's increase nor wane. Disa, in her perplexity at this order, prayed to the goddessFrigg for counsel, and then went to the king in the following manner. Sheharnessed two young men to a sledge, by the side of which she caused a goat to be led; she held one leg in the sledge and placed the other on thegoat, and was herself clad in a net. Thus she came to the king neither walking nor riding, nor driving, nor sailing, neither clad nor unclad. She came neither in a current year nor month, but on the third day before Yule, one of the days of the solstice, which were not reckoned as belonging to the year itself, but as a complement, and in like manner might be said not to belong to any month. She came neither in the increase nor in the wane,but just at the full moon; neither by day nor by night, but in the twilight. The king wondered at such sagacity, ordered her to be brought before him,and found so great delight in her conversation, beauty, and understanding,that he made her his queen."*Other variants of the same stor)- are quoted by Mr D. S. Maccollt In one, to be found in J. F. Campbell's PopularTalcs of the West Highlands, Grania falls in love with Diarmaid,who .said, " I would not take thee on thy feet, and I would not take thee on a horse, and I would not take thee without, and I would not take thee within." But on a da}' she came, and wasbetween the two sides of a door, on a buck-goat. " Now," said she," I am not without and I am not within; I am not on a foot, andI am not on a hor.se; and thou must go with me," she said. Again, in a Transylvanian tale, the king promises to marry thebeggar maid if she will come to him neither driving nor walkingnor riding, neither dressed nor naked, neither out of the roadnor in the road, and she must bring him something that is a giftand no gift. She put two wasps between two plates, strips,and throws over herself a fishing net, puts her goat into a rut in the road, and with one foot on the goat's back and the otherstepping along the rut, made her way to the king. Then shelifted up one of the plates and the wasps flew away; so that shehad brought a gift and no gift. It will be noted that on the Worcester misericord (183), precisely as in the Transylvanianstory, the rider on the goat has one foot on the ground. Itis possible that the subject ultimately derives from Greekmythology; for at Elis there was a statue of Artemis Pandemos,in which she was represented as a naked woman riding on agoat. * Thorpe's Northern Mytho/oi^y, i. 209.t Burlington Magazine^ viii. 80.i85CHAI'TICR XXIIINURSERY RHYMES AND WISE SAWSThen, as now, the pliilosophcr of the tavern bench c^ot muchof his reputation from the stock of " wise saws" that he retailed. Some of them have more than a tavern vogue; the nurseryrhyme is still current which tells us" Hey diddle diddle 1 the cat and the fiddle, The cow jumped over the moon "

thout^h we have lost the key to the meaning" of it. On the

Whallcypews at Eawsley, Northants, both the cat and the fiddle andthe cow jumping- over the moon are represented; at Hereforda cat is playing a fiddle (172). In Beverley Minster a fat catis tormenting two mice, while on a supporter she pla\-s thefiddle and her kittens dance to the music (106). The "Cat andFiddle "is still a well-known inn sign. Elsewhere an ape maybe seen shaving a pig; and a snail creeping up a hill, drivenby a monk. x-\t Whalley (185) and Beverley Minster (164^ the241 86 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHESmisericord depicts the shoeing of the goose; in the latter theshoe and the nails in it are ver\' distinct. In the former the\\h(jle blacksmith's shop is shewn. The goose is in the framewithin which kicking horses were fastened by a rope to a postwhen they were to be shod. The blacksmith is shewn withuplifted hammer; at the back are the fireplace, chimney andbig bellows, the anvil and a completed shoe. The shoeing ofthe goose is also carved on one of the capitals in the quire ofVork Minster.* It was evidently a very ancient saving; Rabelais has it; of Gargantua he sa\'s, " He would fla\- the fox; he shod the gccse; and tickled himself to make himself laugh."At Whalley the explanation is given in blackletter below: "Whoso melles of"' (meddles with "wat men dosLet hym cum hier and she the ghos."The meaning then is that if a man, instead of attending to his own business which he understands, tries his hand at otherpeople's business which he does not understand, he will makea faihire of it. At W'alcourt, Belgium,a blacksinith is nailing a shoe on thewebbed foot of a goose taller than himself which is fastened in a shoeingframe."'" Another misericord at W'hallcy tells us to think much and sa\- little: Rouen Cathedral " Fensez molt e p'lez poy"; an admirable maxim, but what has it todo with thewodehouse and damsel carved above? Abbot Ecclesput up stalls in the Abbey church in 1435, and these stalls in theparish church may have come from the Abbey. At Rouen thecarver wished to illustrate the saying about casting pearls beforeswine, and as marguerite is the term for the flower as well as for the pearl, he shews an old woman empt}'ing a basket of margueriteblooms before her two pigs (186). In the course (jf time thesignification of the name of the flower was forgotten, and themarguerites were imagined to be roses and were described andsculptured as such. Thus the Latin \>xo\^xh margaritas zx\\.q, porcos " becomes in I^'lemish Rosen voor de verkens "

and onmisericords at Kempen and Dordrecht and on old broadsheetsmen are shewn throwing to the pigs baskets containing sj)rays ofroses. Another widespread saying was that of " belling the cat." On a misericord at Kempen four rats have brought a bell on a

• Browne's York Minster^ ii. plate 148. t Illustrated in Maeterlinck, 177.

nuksI':r\' kiivmks and wish saws 187string (the bell resembles a bicycle bell) and the cat is waitingfor them to try to jjut it on. The same saying " II}' hangetde cat de bel aen " appears on T'lemish broadsides, on a sculp- ture at Courtrai and a [)ainting at Haarlem. Another Englishsaying ai)pears in Memish as " Men kan met het hoofd gecn muuren breken "; i.e., "One can't break a wall with one's head." On misericords at Hoogstraeten and St Nicholas,Amsterdam, one man is rushing head first at a wall, anotheris holding his head in both hands, and groaning with pain.*The result of indecision is shewn on misericords at Rouen andAmsterdam b)' a man falling between two stools. The Englishproverb " Much cry and little wool " appears in Flemish as" Veel geschreeuw voor weinig wol " and is represented on astall at Kcmpen by a man shearing a squealing pig; sometimes it is an ape that shears the pig. The Flemings have a complementary proverb, "Veel wol en weinig geschreeuw";?>., " Much wool and little cry"; this is represented by a manshearing a sheep. An equivalent to "shearing the [)ig " was"thrashing eggs with a flail"; in both it is a waste of labour;this subject appears on misericords in Beverley Minster andKempen, Germany. Another widespread belief was that " a woman, an ass, and a walnut tree, the more you beat them, thebetter they be"; or in German " ICin giites Weib musst gepriighelt werden," i.e., " A good wife needs beating." This subject is very frequent indeed on the misericords; e.g., at Hoogstraeten,Holland. "Birds of a feather flock together" appears moreneatl}- in French, "Qui se ressemble s'assemble "

on a misericord in the cathedral of Placentia, Spain, this is represented b}- a woman fondling a pig. * Illustrated in Maeterlinck, 220, 283.

1 88CHAPTER XXIV.A TOPSY TUR\'V WORLDThe carvers also desired to shew that they were witty as well as wise. Their wit was that of the tavern; simple, direct andobvious must the jest be that is to set the taproom in aroar; and it is better appreciated if it is not altoc^'^ether new.'i't^^Hereford CathedralAntiquity did not stale the traditional joke; it improved withage, when the disagreeable element of surprise had beenrubbed off. Like the modern American joke, it was machinemade; and when in the course of two or three generations it had sunk in, it lasted for ever. One of the simplestartifices was that of Inversion. It was thought a huge joke to present a world in which all the ordinary relations of life wereinverted. Whole collections of such pleasant jests were gottogether and published. So late as 1790, and very likely later,books were to be bought entitled T/ie World turned upside doivn. One of these chap books represents two men drawing the plough,\\hich is guided b)- an ox. A second represents a tournamentA TOPSY TURVV WORLD 1S9in which the horses are armed and ride down the men. Anothershews the ox kiUini^ the butcher. In others birds are nettin^^ men; the horse is turned groom and is curryinj^ the rider; andthe fish are catchinc;" the ani^lers.* Quite a simple inversionshewn (jn the misericords is a man ridint^ a horse with his faceto the tail; as at Bristol, I fere ford cathedral (188), All Saints',Hereford, and Wells. There was an ancient saying about thetime when an abbot" Bestridinj4 an ass should ride through the land With the tail instead of the reins in his hand." The old saying of" putting the cart before the horse " is illustratedin Beverley Minster (189). The whole relation of the weak andstrong is inverted; the epic of Kcyiinrd the Fox is a tale of theBeverley Minstersuccessful struggle of the weak little fox with the bear, the wolf,the lion and other big brutes. To a similar inversion Bicr Rabbit owes much of its popidarity in modern days. The mediaevalcarver shews great delight in upsetting the relations betweenthe weaker and the stronger sex; instead of the man thrashingthe woman, the tables are turned, and it is he who constantlygets the worst of it. At Westminster such a scene is shewn on two adjoining misericords; in the first a woman has knocked a man down and is whacking him with a distaff; in the next hesuffers the intensified indignity of being made to kneel while sheadministers a thrashing with a birch. In Picardy one day a year

• Wright's Caricature, 91.

ICO \V()OI> CAUVINCS I\ l-.XCIJSII CHL'KCI I I.SA TOl'SV TURVY VVOl^.I) 191cords at Ripon, Durham Castle cliapcl, aiul I loogstraetcn,Bcli;"iiim. On misericords in Rouen cathedral and Prcsle,h'rance, and lIooL;stracten, Bcli^ium, husband and wife arestrui;i^linfj for the breeches; on a Flemish brcjadshect seven women are fighting for one man's breeches; " Hicr vcc/iienscvoi vvomvcn oni cen mans broeck "

the poor wretch is on the ground,

holding desperately to the breecheswith both hands, while the ladies belabour him with chairs, distaffs,scourges and kitchen utensils. In an engraving by the hdemish artist. VanMecken, dated 1480, the lad)' is l)utting on the breeches, while the man is tr)'ing to wind a ball of yarn on a frame, and the wife is smitinghim with her distaff (191). Preciselythe same representation occurs at Hoogstraeten, Belgium. As withanimals: the weaker are given victory over the strong. a misericord in Beverley Minster a rabbit has put a bit in the mouth of a foK and rides on it with the reins in its mouth;Van Meckenthe sexes, so with theOnSherbornein another a monkey rides on a cat, and combs its backwith a large comb. At Westminster a co*ck rides a fox; at Manchester a fox rides a hound. At Worcester a hare rides a hound (92); this is seen also in a thirteenth century tile fromDerby Priory, where the hare blows a horn as he rides. At Diest,192 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHESBelgium, a dog is wheeled in a barrow by his master, a professional fool. The climax is reached in a woodcut in the chapbook quoted above, where a rabbit is seen turning a spit onwhich a man is roasting. This is the scene represented on amisericord at Manchester. It is the custom still in some old-fashioned places, e.g.^ Stratford-on-Avon, at the fair or feast toroast oxen whole in the street; a pole is passed through themfrom head to foot, and they are kept turning over a fire b\- meansof a windlass. On the misericord, however, it is a spitted huntsman with a bugle who is grilling over the fire, while a hareexamines a row of cooking pots, out of one of which he drawsboiled dog's head. The revenue of the weaker on the stronger^^^^^'^^^^^M^x]>ritish Museum MS.animals is equally complete. The geese, whom he lias harriedso often, turn the tables on Reynard at Sherborne; he is makingan edifying end, attended by two chaplains. At Malvern threemice hang a large, fat cat (191). A charming illumination in amanuscript shews the dog with hands bound behind being cartedto T}'burn b}' hares; he is making his dying speech (192).Another time-honoured joke was to shew a man riding any sortof beast except a horse; e.g., at Beverley Minster, where he ridesa pig, steering it by the tail. As we have seen, bears weretaught to dance and wrestle and box, and apes to mimic almostevery action of humanit}'; it was only one step further in inver-sion to make all other kinds of beasts play human parts.193CIIAPTl'.R XXVIlICRALDIC CARVIXGS AXD IXSCRI I'TIOXSIn many cases a stall was presented by an individual donor.Occasionally it may be that his portrait is carved below. ^At Hit^ham Ferrers the carvin^^ may depict the face of Archbishop Chicheley; he wears the " mitra preciosa ": the supporters seem to be ecclesiastical or academic dignitaries r2i8). In Ik^verley Minster there are inscribed the heraldic devices andBeverley Minsternames of the Precentor, Chancellor and Treasurer, who were by statute respectively first, second and third dignitaries in thechapter. As usual, the pictorial j3un or canting heraldry is common. The precentor of Beverley was ordered b\' ArchbishopArundel to sit in the south row of stalls, the ninth from the west;and the treasurer in the same position on the north side. Thecentrepiece of the precentor's stall consists of a shield, with agriffin on either side as supporter; quarterly in the 1st and 4thcompartments are three billets and three balls, and in the 2ndand 3rd a chevron between three mullets. The inscription is 25194 WOOD CARVINCiS IN KNOLISII CIIUKCIIESARNFA MACISTKI TIIOMK DON VN'dTO', T'CHNTORIS IIUIS ECCLIE;" the arms of Master Tliomas Donington, Precentor of thiscliurcli. ' On the dexter supporter is a pelican in her piety;and on the right a rebus; viz., a Doe on a Tiiu (193). Theprecentor at l^everley was a dignitary by common law, whilethe chancellor and treasurer were only so by custom. AtBeverley he was a priest, but was Rector Chori. His duty wasto provide for and conduct the musical part of the services, andto provide service books and writing materials.* The dutyoftiie chancellor, according to Dugdale, was to h(Mr the lessonsand lectures read in the church b)- himself or his \icar; tocorrect the reader when he reads amiss; to inspect schools; tohear causes; to affix the common seal; to write and despatchletters of the chapter; to keep the books; to take care therebefrequent preachings, both in the church and out of it, andtoassign the office of preaching to whom he pleases. Thechancellor's stall was the first from the west on the south side.On the misericord is more canting heraldr}-; the inscriptionisWII.LIM WVOIIT TEMPORE CANCELLAKIUS HUIUS ECCLECIE;i.e., " William White, temporary chancellor of this church"; andthe centrepiece consists of a shield containing three ivcights; thedexter supporter is a man carr\-ing two weig/its; the sinisterisa man carr}-ing a pair of scales with two n'eighls (195). Thependant of the stall canopy above his head also consists of threeli'eig/its fastened to a ring. The fourth stall from the west on thesouth side is that of the Canon and Prebendary of St Andrew'saltar; the centrepiece consists of a shield with three iceig/i/s, asin the first stall, but without inscription; in the supporters alsomen are lifting n'cig/its; probably Chancellor W\ght or Whitepresented this stall also (195). The treasurer at l^everlc)' v.as theofficer usuall\- called sacrist; he was responsible for the custodyof the wealth of the chapter; the relics, plate, books, vestments,furniture and ornaments; there is an item of a payment in 1532of 1 2d. to " William Taytt, sacrist of the church aforesaid, for thealtar of St James for celebrating mass there in the morning,at1 2d. yearly." The centrepiece of the misericord is a shieldsupported by a hawk and a hound; on a fess are the rays of thesun between three birds; the sun rays are repeated on thependants on the back of the canopy, with the word TATE. Thedexter supporter is a dove or partridge; the sinister a hawk; the inscription is ARMA WILIIELMI TAIT DOCTORIS TIIESAURARIIHUIUS ECCLIE 1520, i.e., "the arms of Dr William Tate,treasurer of this church." This fixes the date of the misericords* Wildridge, 22.Ileverlcy Minsterlieveiley MinsterUcverlcy Minster19(3 wool) CAKVIXCS IX llNC.LISir CIR'KCIIKSill the minster. The gcj-as-you-iilease .spelliiii,^ of the treasurer'sname is worth notice. The first stall from the west on the northside is that of John Sperke. There is an entry in 1532of^15. IIS. id., paid "upon Robert Hogeson, executor of thetestament of John Sparkc, late receiver-general." John Sperkeor Sparke was what was called at Westminster " Gustos Operis"or Warden of the Fabric; at Beverley he is st>'led " Clerk oftheWorks"; his function was to see that the Minster was keptinproper repair and to superintend and find money for anybuilding that was going on. The centrepiece is a hawkingscene. On the dexter supporter is a dog gnawing a bone,asat Christchurch (107); on the sinister supporter is a co*ck. Theinscription is JOHANNES .SI'EKKE CLEklCUS FAIiKICI (196).lieverley MinslcrAnother misericord seems to be a joint present of three canons,but the meaning is not clear. Tiie centrepiece is a crowingco*ck; this ma\' well mean Jl'd/^i': the two co*cks on a barrelortun may be Wake-ing-ton, or W'alkitigtoii; or they maybeco*ck-ton or co*ckiui^ton; the bird with the label CIIOT ma\'beWagshot or co*ckshot. In mail)' cases the heraldry is merely that of the reigningsovereign or dynast)'; e.g.^ a misericord at l^everley Minstercarved in 1520 with nothing but ro.ses; at Windsor a misericordcarved with the rose en soldi, badge of the Yorkists; the antelojie, chained and collared, seen at Beverley (193) was alsoafavourite badge of Henry V. and the House of Lancaster.When the emblem is that of a [private person, it may be sometimes that he was the d(Mior of the stall. At Corstijn, Somer-l'>\etcrl\i'teiTansorVoik11 Lit lord All Saints'.IIKRALDIC CAUVINCJS AND I NSCKI I'TIOXS IQQset, a misericord has a carvini;- of a mermaid holding a comb in one hand and in the other a bag of gold; these are the arms ofthe Brittons, Lords of the Manor of C'orston. At Lynn StMargaret's the scallop shells shew that the misericord was pre- sented by one of the Scales family (17). At Worle are thebeautifully carved initials of Prior Richard Spryng (215). AtICxeter the two fish may be the gift of a man called Pikeor Luce; or the misericord may have been presented by thelishmongers' Guild (197); and in the same way the misericordwith the two gloved hands carved below may have been the giftof the Glovers' Guild (197). At Tansor is a misericord withJ^-ince of Wales' feathers, a fetter lock and a rose (197).Lkdge Supporters.Frec|uently there is no esoteric meaning whatever in thecarving; the design consisting simply of a figure arranged to support the ledge of the seat. An elaborate example is thatof the pair of posture-makers at l*'dy (198), and the contortionistat All Saints', Hereford (198). At York Minster (198), on oneof the only two original misericords saved from the fire, theledge is propped up by head and hands.200CHAPTER X.W'IFOLIAGE AND FIGURE SUBJECTSThe history of foliage and figure sculpture runs very nearl\-parallel in wood and stone. In figure sculpture we started magnificentl)- with the statues which still glorif}' the west front of \\'ells cathedral. F(jr some reason or other this greatwestern school of figure sculpture died out and left no successors. With comparatively few exceptions the statues—other thaneffigies—which were produced after the middle of the thirteenthcentury fell away from the high beginnings of the art, whichnot only decas'ed but sometimes reached an abyss of positi\eartistic degradation; nothing can well be worse, for example,than the row of kings above the western doorway of LincolnMinster. In foliage also the earliest sculptors won to thehighest artistic levels. No foliated capitals were ever pro- duced at any later period to excel those of Wells nave andtransept. Nevertheless fine design and execution of foliated ornament long lingered in stone; e.g., in the naturalistic capitalsof Lichfield nave and Southwell Chapter house, in the bulbousfoliage of the capitals of Selby quire and Patrington church.But after the fourteenth century foliated ornament became to a very large extent standardised, and after that date possesseslittle of freshness, originality, or interest. \'ery similar was thecase with the carvers of the misericords. Their foliated workwas far and away superior to their figure sculpture; the differ- ence indeed on one and the same misericord is sometimes almostridiculous. It seems incredible that the same man who carvedthe figure of St Luke and the oxen at co*ckington can also have been the creator of the foliated supporters, charming alikein design and e.xecution (149). Knowing then his weakness in figure sculpture, and his superiority in foliated ornament, it is not unnatural that in a large number of the misericords he omitsthe former altogether and confines himself to leaf and floral subjects; a special favourite being the rose, parti}- because of its heraldic import, still more because of its decorative facilities. But, unfortunateh- for himself, the wood -carver had not the sameI'OIJACI', AM) IKiL'kK SUIlJKCTS 201free hand;is his brother craftsman. The hitter was not asked —or very seldom— to desi<^ni and execute a cajjital composed ofsculptured fii,an-cs. lUit of the craftsman in stained ^dass and the wood-carver alike a lart;e amount of fi^aire work was expected.With both the conditions were mostly unfavourable. 'I'he ff^rmcr, in all the early glass, and indeed in much of the later glass also,e.g., in the windows of Malvern Priory and the York j)arishchurches, was expected to com[)ress a comjilicatcd figure scene within the scanty limits of a medallion or a small panel. Thelatter was still more straitly confined; it was impossible for himto outpass the limits of the misericord. And even in this he was in nine cases out of ten confined to the narrow boundariesof the centrei)iece and its two small supporters; he was rarelyallowed, as at Gloucester, to occupy the whole space with his subject. His work therefore had to be done on a scale so minute that his design was seriously curtailed in freedom andbreadth. But even if he had had more space and scope, it ma_\-be doubted if he would have obtained any large measure of success; certainly his brother craftsman in stone, when commissioned to execute statues life-size, was rarely to be congratulated.Neither the one nor the other was capable of delineating pureform.Knowing this they sought in compensation to concentratethe attention not on the individual figures or on arrangementsof drapery or on the composition of the whole, but simply onthe story that was being told. This they did in two ways.In the first place the chief persons or animals who were to appear were standardised. This had been done long ago in the EasternChurch in Byzantine manuals of painting. Similar conventions were in vogue in the Western Church. Thus St Paul was repre- sented as tall, bald, with long beard and sword; given this group of characteristics, he could not be mistaken for St Peter or any one else. So it was with the beasts; omit the tail, or make it very short, and a beast so badly drawn that it might equally well have passed for a Hon, wolf or ass, was held to be a bear. Puta ruff round the neck of another beast, and every one knew it meant "lion." With such standardised characters storytelling was much facilitated to the wood-carver. And not unnaturally,he rather tended to emphasise and exaggerate the characteristics of the brute and human "dramatis per.son;\-' "; it made the sceneall the more intelligible. So the goose is ver\- web-footed indeed; the bristling spine of the boar stands up like a board (lOO); thefox has a brush as big as himself; the co*ck has a towering comb.Again, just as a child tries to draw the human figure correctly,and, failing, then sets to work on the much easier task of26202 WOOD LAUMXGS IX ENGLISH CHURCHESdrawing caricatures of it, finding therein genuine inlcrest andenj())nicnt, so the wood-carver was easily tempted to leave thedifficult delineation of the human form in its normal grace ofposture and attitude, and to draw it by preference when in anabncjrmal and contorted position. Hence the numerous repre-sentations of contortionists and posture-makers. From this thestep was short to invent imaginar}- beings contorted andgrotesque in the composition of their members or in their atti- tudes. Hence the delight in grotescjue monsters—not only thealmost classical dragons and griffins and w\-verns, but the purelyimaginary beasties such as are seen on the misericords of AllSaints', Hereford (66), and St Nicholas, L)-nn (6S).Even when he confined himself to vegetative form, the woodcarver was subjected again to serious limitations. He mightwish to delineate a forest or at any rate a tree. The space wastoo small for a whole forest; so he had to be satisfied withrepresenting one or two trees, which were to be taken to mean"forest" (50). In the same way two or three pillars and arches,e.g-., at Ely (98), were taken to mean " church," on the principleon which the Boeotian brought to the auction room a brick as aspecimen of the house he had for sale. Nor again, if he confined himself to a single tree, were his difficulties at an end.For it was essential that the subject should co\er the space; anda tree, if its spreading head be shewn, leaves much blank spaceon either side of the trunk. Therefore for the most part heavoids them altogether. Being thus out of practice in drawingtrees, if he does attempt them, the results are the more dis-astrous; e.o;-., at Bristol (72) and Beverley St Mary's (61) and in a really ambitious attempt at Chester C37). The wretchednature of this work onl)' emphasises all the more the veritabletriumj)hs which he won in the delineation of leaf and bloom.The first period of his work in foliated ornament is seen earlyin the thirteenth centur)', when the sculptor at Wells andLincoln had produced for him patterns of foliated work in stone.The ornament is precisel}' similar to the scroll work which maybe seen in the spandrels of arches at Lincoln, Stone church,Westminster and elsewhere; it is conventional foliage of trefoiledor cinquefoilcd leafa*ge; e.^<^.,Rt Hemingborough, Yorkshire (203),and Christchurch, Hants (203), in the second of which writhingdragons are introduced (203).By the middle of the centur\' the design is still more refined;the veins of the leaves are raised, and the little blobs on themare represented also; a fine sequence of this work will be seenon comparing the work at Christchurch with that at Exeter (205);all the E.xeter work is of the period 1 255-1 269, Except atI204 WOOD CARVINGS IN KNCiLISII CHURCHESExeter no set of misericords of this period remains. At times,however, an isolated example occurs amid a set of later design,e.g., at Westminster. In such cases it is likely that thereoriginally existed a complete set of foliated misericords,and that they were deliberately destro)ed in later daj's in order that they might be replaced by misericords with figuresubjects. In the last }'ears of the thirteenth century and a little later, con\entional was replaced by naturalistic foliage, both in stoneand wood. Of the latter there are delightful examples in thestalls of Chichester cathedral (206) and Winchester cathedral.Jkit by far the finest set is that at VVells, where all the supportersconsist of bosses of foliage, carved with great truthfulness to nature, and including specimens of the oak, the maple, the vine,the rose, the marsh mallow, the ivy, the beech and other well- known plants and trees (107, 108). Some, however, have conventional foliage, thoroughly thirteenth century in t}'pe. Wheresuch is the case, cj^., at Exeter also, it has sometimes beenassumed that the two designs are of different date. This doesnot always follow. Since the world began there have ever been)'oung men and old men, progressives and retrogressives; thelatter would be sure here and there to repeat time-hallowed, if out-of-date, design, if only to save thought.Photogra{)hic copying of natural lea\"cs, clever as it was, soonwearied; and in the first half of the fourteenth century wasreplaced by the delineation of leaves of bulbous form. Themerit of the new work was that it abounded in the compoundogee curve which now ran riot all over the building; which,beginning with the crockets, was the keynote of foliated design,moldings, canopies, and window tracer}' alike. Nowhere is it seen in greater profusion than at El)', both in stone and wood; almost every misericord has specimens of it; typical examplesare illustrated on pages 170, 198; and a different design, but still with the swelling ogee curve, is seen on the supporters in Hereford cathedral (172, 188). In the latter half of the fourteenth century the ogee designbecomes at once more complex, and is full of variety andinterest. At Worcester the swineherd scene has foliage ofsimple type (95) but it is greatly enriched in most instances(143, 183). Erom these last the transition is short to theSherborne examples. But the next two examples fromSherborne go on to a fresh line of design (90, 146); and this again is deserted for a charming vine pattern (152). At AllSaints', Hereford, the three rose designs are delightfully fresh and vigorous (65, 198).ExeterExeterExeter2o6 WOOD c.\RVi\(;s IN r.Nc.Lisii CHURCHESIn the fifteenth century foliated ornament went very largely out of vogue. In most parts of England, excepting Somersetand Devon, the foliated capital went out of use, supplantedby its rival, the molded capital. For the most part foliage was conventionalised once more and standardised, thefavourite form being a square or lozenge-shaped flower, withor without stalks. This could be executed with few strokesof the gouge and was produced in thousands. In its normaland simplest form it is seen at Worlc (117), Beverley StMary (15) Ludlow (90), Carlisle (179); and with rather moreelaboration at Cartmel (51). Nevertheless, here and there,something more interesting was produced, survivals more orless of fourteenth century design. Roses arc seen at StChichesterMargaret's, Lynn (17), Cartmel (7), and Wellingborough (95);and at Windsor the Yorkist badge, the rose en soldi. In thechapel of Winchester College is a charming example of con- volvulus leaves, bloom and tendrils. In the first half of the sixteenth century much of thefoliage is conventional and uninteresting; nevertheless there is a revulsion at times to naturalistic forms; and it is noticeablethat when they are adopted, the carvers do not revert to simpleand easy leafa*ge like the oak and vine, but frequently go out of their way to find blooms and seed vessels of highly complicated character, which will the more do credit to theirskill. In this department of foliated ornament the Riponcarvers easily bear off the bell; the examples shewn (9, 140)are unequalled elsewhere, except perhaps in some prett}'roLiAr;!', anI) i-icUri". suimkcTs 207coliiinljincs at IManchcstcr. lii l^cvcrley Minster are ctjpies,iiKjrc or les-i clumsy, of the Ripcjii desif^m (lOO, 155J. At Wcstniiiistcr entirely new motifs are essayed (i i). In Christchurch, Hants, the influence of the rcversi(jn to theClassical dcsiL^n of the Renaissance is manifest; all the stalls of1 509-1 520 have scrolls of acanthus of almost identical design(107). At Kin<4's Colley,"c, Cambrid<,^e, the misericcjrds, like themaLjnificent stalls, are of Early Renaissance character; they arec. 1534; and are of two different desii^ns; the more importantwith very fine Renaissance scroll work; the rest much moresimple.To the seventeenth century belong the stalls of VVimborneand Durham cathedral. The former, with the stalls, have beenfor the most part " restored " away; among those that remainare scrolls of acanthus; their date is 1608. Misericords ofClassical type remain also in the chapel of Lincoln College,O.xford, consecrated in 163 1. Those at Durham were put upby the munificent Hishop Cosin between 1660 and 1672; theyalso are without supporters; they replace those destro)-ed bythe Scotch prisoners.2o8PART IIICHAPTER XXVIIOX THE USE OF MISERICORDS—XOMENCLATUREIn the primitive churches the chief posture permissible durintjthe services was that of standing; the faithful stood as a rule durin<; the whole service; if at prayer, usually they stood withhands uplifted, as may be seen in the numerous paintings ofthe " Orante " in the Roman catacombs. At a later period it became more usual to kneel at prayer; still, however, it wasforbidden to sit in church. Cases occurred, e.g., at Besan9on,where Peter Damian, in the eleventh century, condemned the canons for sitting in church; evidently such a practice wasregarded as exceptional and reprehensible. But where themonks or canons were weak or old, some relaxation of theseverity of the rule was inevitable. The first step in thedirection of mitigation was to provide the weak with crutches,which, placed under the armpit, afforded some support. These" leaning staffs " or " reclinatoria " are mentioned in the Customaryof Lincoln Minster; the)' are still in use in some Greek churches.Amalarius, who took a leading part in the organisation of thecathedrals, required the leaning crutch to be laid aside duringthe reading of the Gospel. Others, like St Benedict, more conservative of ancient usage, refused to allow "reclinatoria" to beused at all.* A further and later indulgence or " misericordia"(" act of mercy ") was to construct the seats of the stalls withjiivots and hinges so that they could be turned u[) like the scats of the stalls in a modern theatre; and to provide the undersideof the seat with a small projecting ledge affording a little support behind to a person standing in the stall. Seats so

• Walcott, Sacred Archccology, 548.

ON TIIK USE OF M ISKKIco*kDS --NO.M I:N( LA'ir I-li; 209constructed arc tcnncd misericords, i.e., " indulgence scats." Jiythe use of these misericords the monks and canons were able to comply with the ancient discipline where it enjoined a standingposition, while at the same time obtaining a little su[:)i)ort andchange of posture. An carl}' mention of misericords occurs in Peter of Cluny, a.d. 1121, when he speaks of "scabella scdibusinhaerentia "; about the same time tlie term "misericord" is employed at the convent of Hirsaugh, in Germany; the stalls being termed "sedilia." We have no existing misericords soearly in ]'!]ngland; of those wliich survive none are earlier thanthe thirteenth centur)'. Ducange in his dictionary says that the term inisericordia is equivalent to the h^'cnch " misericordes " or "patiences," and that it is applied to the "sellulae erectis formarum subselliis appositae, quibus stantibus senibus vel infirmis per misericordiam insidere conceditur, dum alii stant"; i.e., " when the scats (subse/lia) of the stalls {foruiae) are turnedup, there are little ledges, and during parts of the service wherea standing position is required, the aged and infirm are allowedt(j sit on these ledges by way of indulgence or mercy {uiiserieordiei)." For this use of the term miseiicoi-dia he quotes thefollowing: " In ecclesia quamdiu scilla pulsatur ante Nocturnos,super misericordiam sedilis sui, si opus habet, quiescit"; i.e., "as long as the bell is being rung before Nocturns, he remainsstill on the misericord of his stall" {sedile).* In the Greekchurch near London Wall, every seat was of misericord construction. During those parts of the service (and they are veryfrequent) where the rubrics require a standing position, theworshipper raises the stall to support the person, which it doesin a very sufficient manner. f Sometimes even with the aid ofthe misericords it was found impossible to stand during the longand numerous services, and a dispensation had to be granted.Thus at Westminster the saiigitinad," those who had recentlyhad their blood let, did not proceed to the stalls for service, butto St Benedict's chapel, where scats were provided for them.Such relaxations of discipline were really necessary in themediiuval Church. The ancient offices to be said daily wereseven; Lauds, Prime, Tierce, Se.it, N'ones, Vespers and Complinein addition to which there was Matins at or soon after midnightand every day there was Higli Mass, at which the whole com-

• It is plain from this passage and others that the term sedilia was

originally applied to the stalls. What we now call sedilia, viz., the seats ofthe celebrant, deacon and subdeacon on the south side of the sanctuary, were styled presbytery. The term ^^ forma" is found also for a misericord,and ^'"formula either for the kneeling board or for the elbow rest. t Notes and Queries, \. v. 39. 272IO WOOD CARVINGS IN ENllLISIl CilUKCHHSniunit}' was present; moreover, ever}' priest other than thecelebrant had liimself to sa}- a private mass, besides occasionallytaking part in additional masses for beneHictors of the conventand others. At each of the seven offices four psalms, besidescanticles and h\mns, were recited; 4x7 = 28 psalms + 7 canticles+ 7 hymns = 42 periods at which it was necessary to standdaily, besides endless verses and responses, in addition to Matinsand Mass.* In the end, however, a further relaxation tookplace; it was allowed to turn down the seats of the stalls and tosit on them; eg:, at the h^pistle and Gradual at Mass and theResponse at Vespers.During the nineteenth century the custom has grown upof styling these seats Jiiiscreres; this term has no ancientauthority and should be discarded. *

• Letts, Manchester Misericords.

t It seems to occur first in 1809 in Bishop .Milner's History of Winchester,ii- yi-21 Iciiapti-:r xw'iiiDESKiN OF Tin<: SKATSIn ex;iminint4' a scries of misericords it is of i^rcat importanceto draw the scat as seen in plan. This seems hitlierto to havecsca[3ecl notice; yet it is the simplest and easiest test of thechronology of the work, e.g., if the seats of the misericords at Christchurch, Hants, are inspected, it will be found that theyare of three different shapes; and the scries is seen at once to be partly of the thirteenth, partl\' of the fifteenth, and parti)- (»f the sixteenth century, in similar fashion, the misericords in Norwich Cathedral are shewn to be of two different [K-riods b\' the plan of their seats. Taking the seat-plan as criterion of date, the misericordsfall into three main groups. I. The first comprises roughl)-those of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries; in this the seats are simple in plan; at the sides they are usually concave; in front they are straight or concave or more rarel\- convex.I'^Kamples occur in Chichester Cathedral and Hospital; co*ckington, Devon; Ely, Exeter and Gloucester Cathedrals; HighamI^'errcrs, Hereford Cathedral and All Saints' church; La\enham,Suffolk; Lynn St Margaret; Malvern; Norwich Cathedral; Ripple, Gloucester; Sutton Courtney, Berks.; Wells, Worcester and Winchester Cathedrals; Winchester College; Worlc,Somerset.II. The second group comprises roughl)' those of thefifteenth century and of the sixteenth centur)- up to theDissolution. They are more complicated on plan, having four,five or six sides, either straight or curving. Man)- of theearlier seats had had a hollow curve; this second set hasnormall)' a projecting point in front; the addition of whichprovided below more scope for the carver. Examples occur at Aylsham, Norfolk; Beverley Minster and St Mar)s church; Brampton, Hunts.; King's College, Cambridge; Carlisle Cathedral; Cartmel; Chester Cathedral; Durham Castle; Faversham, Kent; Fordham and Gamlinga)-, Cambs.; Tansor,Northants; Leighton Buzzard; Lincoln Minster; Ludlow;212 WOOD CARVINGS IX KXCLISII CHURCHESLynn St Nicholas; Manchester Cathedral; Maidstone; Norwich Cathedral; All Souls', Oxford; Peterborough Cathedral; Richmond; Ripon Minster; Rothwcll; St David's; Stratford-on-.\von; Throwlej', Kent; Westminster; Windsor; \'orkMinster.Of this group there is a variant, which differs in having astraight side and not a point in front. In some cases themisericords are contemporaneous with those mentioned above; in others they seem to be rather earlier. E.xamplcs occur at]^ake\vcll; Bishop's Stortford; Bristol Cathedral; Gaj-ton,Northants; Iligham Ferrers; Minster in Thanet; Sherborne;Tong, Salop; and Wellingborough.III. The third group includes most of those of Post-Reformation date, which revert to the simple j)lan of seat,usually from motives of economy. Examples arc Christchurch,where the plan of the seat has probably been assimilated to thatof a number of thirteenth centur}' misericords which remainedin use there; Wimborne and Durham Cathedral. A few rutiemisericords also of the second group retain the earl}' simpleform, doubtless also for reasons (jf econom}-; c.j^., Swine,Yorkshire.The edge of the seat is of course always rounded, with a viewto the comfort of the occupant; and in some of the earliermisericords this is about all that is done in the wa}' of molding; e.jg:, at P^xeter (205) and Ilemingborough. In the latest examplesthe tendency is to increase the number of moldings considerably;c.^., at Norwich (2), Beverley Minster (^/) and Manchester (23).But exceptions occur, so that simplicity or elaboration of moldingmust not be accepted by itself as a criterion of date; e.j^., thesixteenth century moldings of the Westminster misericords arevery simple, whereas those of Bristol (72), which are r. 1520, areof very elaborate character. Sometimes a difference of moldingargues a difference of date; e.£:, in Norwich Cathedral (2, ii). But it may argue, not a difference of date, but a difference ofworkman; e.j^., at Chester one man, a splendid craftsman, carvedmany of the seats and put his own set of moldings on them (15);another, an inferior craftsman, emplo\'ed a different set ofmoldings. Against this we may set the fact that sometimes acraftsman varied his molds; c.i^., at Ripon the two carvings ofJonah are undoubtedl}- b}- the same hand; yet the moldings differ (140). On the whole much caution has to be exercised in drawingdeductions from the similarity or dissimilarity of molds. It is better to pay attention to the moldings of the stall-back and its elbow-rests than to those of the seat. With so much carvingbelow of foliage and figures, ornamentation other than moldingDKSKIN OK Til!', SKATS 213was not required; nevertheless all the misericorfls of l^everleyMinster have a scalloped ornament (196); and on those ofLincoln Minster tiny roses are carved (78). The upper roll orthe rounded cdi^e of the seat is usually continued on to thesupporters; but in a few cases, e.^:, Higham Ferrers (221) and StNicholas, L\-nn (68), two rolls arc continued. In a few instancesworkmen's marks arc found on misericords; (?.i,n, at Exeter andLudlow. Almost always the stall- backs and elbow-rests are ofwood, not of cold stone; but at Walpole St Peter, Norfolk, andSt Swithin, Norwich, the seats rest on stone supjK>rts. AtDenton and Kinj;'s Sutton, Northants, both stalls and seats areof stone; in the fonner there arc seven, in the latter twelve.*A misericord of normal desii^^n had a centrepiece flanked bysu[)portcrs. It was some time before the carvers full)' recognisedthe importance of the supporters; they are emphasised more in the thirteenth century misericords of Exeter than in the examplesat the beginning of the next century in Chichester and WinchesterCathedrals, where the supporters are bunched up close to thecentrepiece. Perhaps most elaboration was bestowed on thesup[:)orters in Winchester Cathedral, where they are larger thanthe centrepiece; and at Westminster, where they are c. 1509; in an example at Lavenham the supporters have actually crowdedout the centrepiece. In a few churches the supporter is omittedaltogether. This is the case at Wakefield Cathedral; Soham,Cambs.; Swine, Yorkshire; King's College, Cambridge; Wimborne Minster and 13urham Cathedral. In some cases onlythe tij) of the bracket supporting the ledge is carved; e.j^., atSutton Courtney, Berks., and Soham, Cambs., and Wingfield,Suffolk; or the bracket form is more or less retained, asat Fordham, Cambs.; Tilney All Saints', Norfolk; King'sCollege, Cambridge, and Wimborne Minster. In very few casesare all the misericords alike; as at Wingfield, Suffolk, and atLincoln College, Oxford.In foreign examples the supporters are usually absent; andthis is occasionally so in EnglancI, e.^., at Gloucester (80).W'r\' frequently there is no connection between the subjectof the centrepiece and those of the supporters. There are, however, interesting exceptions. At Exeter a centaur shoots adragon-headed supporter (13). The E!l\' harriers occupy bothsupporters and the centrepiece (100); and at El}' also the repre-sentations of St Giles (153) and of St John Baptist (144) occupyall three. So domestic bliss may be represented in the supporters,and domestic infelicit\' in the centrepiece, or z'/ce versa. In* Cox and Harvey, 260.214 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENCLISII CHURCHESBeverley Minster one supporter portraj-s the vice of avarice,the other that of drink; in the centrepiece a devil is carryini^ a lost soul to hell. The most elaborate sequence perhaps existsat Lincoln, where the first three scenes are portra\-ed on thestall (the Precentor's) above, (i) Two monkeys arc churninf:^(2) a monke)' has stolen a pat of butter and is hidint^ in a tree; (3) the thief is hanged; the churners haulinc:^ at the rope, andthe culprit with clasi)ed hands sa\-ing his last prayer; (4) on themisericord below, the thief's corpse is being carried to burial bythe executioners.Orig'inall}- there were no doubt man}- sequences in the miseri- cords, but they have been subjected to so many changes that in few cases has the sequence been preserved. Thus at Westminster a pair of misericords, now separated, probablx' originall}'adjoined; in the one the devil is seizing a monastic miser, whosemone)^ is dropping out of his bag; in another a devil is haulinghim off, bag and all, to hell. At Bristol there is a long sequencefrom the romance of Reynard the Fox, which has recentl}' beenrestored to its proper order.215ciiAi'Tr:R XXIX(Rrri'.KIA OF DATEIt is often difficult to fix the chronoloj^)' of a inisericord; thefollowiiii^ data ma\' be useful.(i) In a few cases the date is carved; at Ripon there aremisericords inscribed with the dates 14CS9 and 1494. Onamisericord in J^everle}- Minster is the date 1520.(2) The name of the donor of the stall or stalls is sometimesgiven; e.i^., the names of several of the canons of He\-erle\' MinsterWorleappear on the misericords beneath their stalls. Sometimes onlythe initials apj^ear, as at Worle, Somerset (215), where the initials are those of Richard Spring, Prior of Worspring and Vicar ofWorle, 1499-1516. At IVIinster are the initials J. C.; JohnCurteys or Curtis was rector there from 1401 to 1419. At Richmond the stalls were brought from Easby Abbey; what wasthere the abbot's stall has a shield with a ///«and the letters BA pierced by a crosier, and surmounted by a scroll inscribedABBAS; this is the rebus of Abbot Hampton, whose election2l6 WOOD CARVINGS IX ENGLISH CIIURCHKSwas confirmed in 15 15. On a misericord at L}'nn St MarL;aretthere is the head of the Black Trince and his badge, the ostrich feathers; he died in 1376.(3) Heraldry often occurs, and enables one to fix the nameof the donor of the misericord. At Wellingborough on theelbow-rest of a stall is a shield with the arms of White; JohnWhite was rector from 1361 to 1392. And since CrowlandAbbey, to whom the church belonged, was ordered in 1383 to repair the chancel, it follows that the stalls were probably putup after 1383, and before the death of Parson White in 1392. At Wakefield on a misericord is a couple of owls, the crest ofthe Savile family, and a shield with the arms impaled of ThomasSavile and Margaret Basworth, who were married in 1482, In Durham Castle chapel are stalls which were put up in the chapelof Auckland Castle by Bishop Ruthall (1508- 1522), whose armsare carved on a superb bench-end; these misericords were re- moved to Durham Castle by Bishop Tunstall. At Maidstoneare the arms of Archbishop Courtcna\-. including the arclii- cpiscopal pallium; he made the church collegiate in 1395.(4) In several cases we know the name of the donor whogave the stalls, and the presumption is that the misericords were made at the same time as the stalls. At Lincoln, the Treasurer,John de Welbourne, who died in 1380, is stj'led " inceptor et consultor inceptionis facturae stallorum no\orum in ecclesia cathedrali Lincolniensi "; he was treasurer from about 1350101380. At Cartmel the stalls were put up by Prior William deWaltona, but his date is uncertain; more than one WilliamWalton was Prior. At Manchester the stalls were given in 1508 by Warden Stanley, afterwards Bishop Stanley, with theaid of a merchant, Richard Beck. At Christchurch the stalls, with their Renaissance panelling, were given b\- Prior WilliamEyre (1502- 1520); those misericords which ha\e scrolls of classic leafa*ge are part of the same work. At Wimborne the stalls were given in 1608 by the Bankers famil\'. The directions ofBishop Cosin for misericords to be placed in his chapel at Bishop Auckland are still extant."Six chairs of wainscot j^ross work to be placed on the insidesofthescreen within .Auckland chapel, on the liyht and left hand, in the middleaisle, and to be made of the fashion of the chairs now in the chapel at Durham castle. . . . The seats must be to turn up, with a little seat whenturned up, and carving underneath it. *(5) Again, when a quire was rebuilt on a grander scale, new

• " Bishop Cosin's Correspondence," quoted by J. T. Fowler in Notes and

Queries^ 4, xi. 459.criti:ria ov datk 217stalls and misericords were usuall)' ])ro\id(:d. In such a ( asc llu- misericords arc not likely to he earlier than the rehuildini^ of thequire. This helps us to the dates of several sets of misericords.l'21y ([uire was be^un in 1322, and there is documentary evidencethat the stalls were bei^un in I33S. Wells (|uire was parti)' re- modelled, partly rebuilt, between 1329 and 1363; the stalls werebc,i4"un in 1325, and several were still unfinished in 1337. Therebuilding; of Malvern quire was completed r. 14S0. The re- modelling of Gloucester quire was finished c. 1350. The (juireofYork Minster was rebuilt between i3So and 1400. Ai^ain, at Sherborne, in 1436 there was a great riot because the UKjnks hadrestricted the right of access to the parish font in the nave ofthe abbey church, and the townsmen set fire to the church; veryinuch damage was done, as is still evident from the marks of fire on the piers; the stalls would doubtless be destroyed 1)\- the fire; so we may conclude that the present stalls are the ones erected soon after 1436. N. Walsham church was destroyed in thepeasant rising of 1381; the stalls therefore are probably soonafter that date. The same reasoning applies to misericordsplaced in a chapel; they arc not likely to be earlier than thebuilding or rebuilding of the chapel. Winchester College chapelis part of the work of William Wykeham, 1387- 1393. St Mary'shospital at Chichester was built c. 1290, and the stalls would bewanted at once. Lynn St Nicholas was rebuilt c. 1415. Thechapel of All Souls' College, Oxford, was consecrated in 1442. The chapel of King's College, Cambridge, was being completedin 1 5 15. Henry the Seventh's chapel at W^estminster was in- complete at his death in 1509. The chapel of Lincoln College,Oxford, was consecrated in 163 1. But this criterion is notinfallible, c.j^^:, the misericords at New College, Oxford, are muchlater than the completion of the college in 1386. On the otherhand the misericords at Cartmel are much earlier than thecanopies above them, which are of Renaissance character.(6) Again, in large parishes a church was often madecollegiate; i.e., it was supplied with a staff of several rectors, secular canons, instead of one; and for their accommodationadditional stall work was required; it is important therefore to know the date when churches became collegiate. Here are afew, possessing misericords. Ottcry St Mary, Devon, becamecollegiate in 1337; Sudbury St Gregory and U'ingfield, Suffolk,in 1362; Irthlingborough, Northants, in 1376; All Saints',Maidstone, in 1395; Higham Ferrers in 141 5; Tong, Salop,between 1401 and 141 1. The quire of the collegiate church ofFothcringhay was built in 141 5; on its ruin its stalls were movedto neighbouring churches; Hemington has ten of them; others282l8 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENGLISH CHURCHESarc at Bcneficld and Tansor.* At Nantwich the church wasmade collegiate between 1327 and 1333. Ludlow becamecollegiate in the latter part of the fourteenth century.(7) If we cannot fix the date of the misericords, we cansometimes fix the date of the stalls and canopies b\- thearchitectural and other ornament which they contain; and thepresumption is that the misericords also are of this date, e.g.^ in Winchester cathedral the design of the stalls is closely akinto the design in stone which was in vogue c. 1305; and wema\' accejJt that date both for stalls and misericords. Ikit it may be that the canopies were put up later; at Carlisle thirtyyears later; at Cartmel some two centuries later. At Exeterthe stalls and misericords are of the thirteenth centur\-; onlii'>;liain 1- cncrsthem Sir Gilbert Scott put tabernacled canopies of fifteenth century t}-pe.(8) It has already been mentioned that in a large numberof the later misericords the seat is of complex plan and is usually pointed in front. Seats of this plan have a definite range. Among them are the following, of which approximatedates are given: Lincoln, 1370; Hemington, 1415; York, 1390;Maidstone, Higham Ferrers and Lynn St Nicholas, 141 5; AllSouls', Oxford, 1442; Norwich cathedral, the later stalls, 1480;Aylsham, Norfolk. 1507; Manchester, 1508; Westminster,1509; Durham Castle, 15 12; Faversham, 1533; King's College,

• English Chitrch Fitr/u'hnr, 257.

CRITKKIA OF DATE 219Cambridtj^c, 1534. T'loin these dates it is fair to infer that when this tyi)e of misericord occurs, it is not earh'er tlian 1370.(9) As lias been pointed out abo\e, the character of thefoh'as^e employed is very significant; it provides us with a series of periods (<•?) with conventional, {/)) with naturalistic, (c) withbulbous foliage, {d) with a square or lozengc-shajjed leaf, {e) with complicated and novel t\'pcs of leaf, bloom and seed vessel. (10) Occasionally the ornament employed has a definite time-limit; e.g., the ball-flower ornament which occurs at Sutton Courteney, Berks., is most comm(Mi in stone carvingbetween c. 1307 and c. 1327. (11) Occasionally the subject is significant, e.g., at I'^xeter thecarving of the ele[)hant fixes that particular misericord as later than 1255; and as no items for the cost of the misericordsappear in the Exeter Fabric Rolls, which commence in 1279, we may assume that the Exeter misericords were mcxstly carxedbetween 1255 and 1279. (12) /\rmour occurs not infrcquciitl}', and is a valuableindication of date, e.g., the flat-topped helmets seen on theExeter misericords {yy) resemble those of the effigies in theTemple church, London, and are of early date. At Chester the armour of the knights belongs to the period of the Jupon andCamail or Mail Gorget, which was in use in the latter part of the reign of Edward III. and in that of Richard II. (50, jG).At Worcester also the armour is of the same period; but thegorgets appear to be of plate, though these may conceal thecamail; the costume of the supporters is distinctly that usual in the fourteenth century. At Norwich is a man-at-arms; probably of the last half of the fourteenth century (2). In doubtful cases the following may be consulted:Mknrick, S. R. Inquiry into Ancient Armour. 3 vols. 1824.Hewitt, J. Ancient Armour in Europe to the SeventeenthCentury. 3 vols. 18S5. Dkuitt. Costume on Moiiumental Brasses. London 1906. (13) Costume is a still more \-aluable help; not ever\-bod\' wore armour, but everybod)' wore some kind of clothes. But an important point must be borne in mind; viz., that the peoplerepresented are for the most part quite common folk, whosecostume cannot be identified by studying the dress of knightsand ladies. Of the latter, however, there are examples; e.g., the horned headdress or " hennin " at Ludlow (180) and Tansor(220), which was most in fashion between 1430 and 1440. The Ludlow scold and the centrepiece and right supporter at220 WOOD CARVINGS IN ENCILISII CllLKCIIKSTansor wear the hennin with a veil; the left supporter in the latter without a veil. On brasses the ran<^e of the hennin is about 1420 to 1440. At Ludlow the riijht supporter holds upa mirror for the scold to behold her beaut}-. At Hii^hamI'errers the right supporter wears the "chaperon" or hoodtwisted up over the head; the left supporter has the "crespine"headdress; both were in vogue in the early years of the fifteenthcentury (221). At Malvern the personage maybe either ecclesiastical or academical; he wears a curious flat cap, and a capewith a hood attached; the dress appears to belong to the latterhalf of the fifteenth century ( 1 17). At Ri[){)le is seen the pedimental headdress which was in vogue from c. 1490 to c. 1560(121). At Ludlow is a man in a hood with a g\-pcicre or pouch,Tansorwhich may be late fourteenth or early fifteenth century (90).At St David's the man on the right has a bag-sleeved girdledgown; this is probably between 1450 and 1480 {'^7). At Carlislethe costume, being caricatured, is difficult to date. It may beeither temp. Richard II., or it may belong to the last half of thefifteenth century (179^. The Carlisle stalls are stated to havebeen put up ^. 1401. At Worcester in the Judgment of Solomon the two motherswear the flat headdress which is seen on the brass of LadyMalyns in Chinnor church, Oxon.; .she died in 1385.* Thestyle of drapery looks like that of the late fourteenth century.In Chichester cathedral is an important misericord, in which the* Illustrated in Macklin's Brassi^s, 51.ckiTiiKiA ()i- i).\'ri': 22 Idcxlcr suppork'i' wcnrs the same headdress as a " weeper " <jn thetomb of John of h'Jthain {ob. 1334; in VVestiTiiiistcr Abbe)'; it is also seen on the effigies of ladies at Aldworth, Ryther, and Ifield, where the armour of the accompan)-in_i;- knights is nearer i 300than 1350. The headdress of the sinister supporter is earlierthan 1340, when the true ticbnlc came into fashion. With thisChichester headdress ma\' be paralleled that of a Madonna atLichfield, f. 1300; those of effigies at Abergavenn)-, r. I 320; andthat on a head-corbel on the later of the two tombs of the Alardsat Winchelsea.*" Judging by the evidence afforded by tiiese twoheaddresses, the misericord may be given the ap[)roximate datecif 1320. JUit as some of the misericords in the cathedral are oflater character than this, we may give to the whole set an]Ii>'ham Ferrersapproximate date of 1330; no doubt the work was spread overseveral years (139).As regards the men, two other criteria may be mentioned; one has regard to the fashion of dressing the hair, the other tothat of their footwear. As to the hair; from c. 1325 to c. 1400,the hair was worn long and wavy, but became shorter towardsthe end of the fourteenth century; the size of the head and the earsis usually exaggerated, as in several of the Ely examples; thebeard may be either pointed or forked, e.g., at Ely (144}, or theface may be clean shaven, as at Worcester (92). From c. 1400to c. 14 tO the hair is short, a moustache is common, and thecurious forked beard prevails; t:.g., at Higham Ferrers (221).* For particulars as to the Chichester headdresses I am indebted to Mr E. S. I'rior.222 WOOn CARVINGS IN KNGI.ISH CIHRCIIESFrom I. 1430 to c. 14.S0 the hair was worn shoit b)' the upperclasses, and was cut in an ugly fashion so as to form a roll onthe top of the head; the face is clean shaven. From c. 1475 toc. 1565 tlic hair was worn long again, and the face was cleanshaven; e.g., at Malvern (117). In all the misericords of BeverleyMinster (1520), except two, the face is clean shaven. As for shoes, from c. 1325 to c. 1483 the pointed shoe prevailed; it is well seen in the Worcester tournament (159). I^rom c. 1464 toc. 1565 low, broad shoes were worn, clumsy and loose in appear- ance; e.g., at Ripple (117) These shoes, no doubt, as well as pointed ones, were worn by common folk from c. 1325 to c. 1483 also. On this subject the following may be consulted: Plancih:. J. R. History of Costume. 1847. FairiioLT, F. \V. CostII lilt- in liiigland. Fdited by Hon.H. F. Dillon. London, 1885. Druitt, C. Costume on Monnmetital Brasses. London,1906.Clinch, G. English Costume. London, 1909. (14) Another test consists of the comparison of undated withdated e.Kamplcs. If we find idcntit)' of subject and treatment,especially if the subject be an unusual one, the presumption is that the undated set is of the same period as the dated one, or nearly so. If the subject be a usual one, the coincidence is not worth much; e.g., Worcester and Malvern are within sightof one another; both were Benedictine churches, and both havemisericords with seats similar in plan. Both have representationsof the sower, the weeder and the swineherd; it does not follow,however, that one borrowed from the other, or that the sameset of carvers executed both sets; for these personages occurall over the country, and no doubt are borrowed not from oneanother, but from a common source; viz., the traditional repre- sentations of the months and the operations of agriculture. Onthe other hand representations of the scriptural subject of thespies bearing a big bunch of grapes from Canaan are very rare; they occur in two pro-cathedrals, Beverley and Ripon, of the same diocese, both served by secular canons; the presumptionis then that there is some connection between the two sets ofmisericords. The connection is not probably that the}' wereexecuted by the same carvers, for the Beverley misericords are very late, A.D. 1520, moreover the carving at Ripon is on afar higher artistic level than at Beverley; but that the Beverleyexamples are inferior copies of the Ripon work. This is borneout by the fact that unusual types of plant form which occurCRITERIA OF DATl". 223at Ripon arc repeated, and again by an inferior hand, at lieverley.At Manchester (23), Chester (15J and Carh'sle (62) arc mostvigorous representations of fights between a h'on and a dragon; one would say that they must be by tiie same man, and he a master hand; unfortunatel}- there is an equally vigorous carvingin stone of the same scene on the Percy tomb in BeverleyMinster, which is c. 1340. On the whole there is com[)arativclylittle evidence of copying of design; the style of work in themisericords is individual; and there is but little evidence fjf peripatetic schools or gangs of carvers; the strongest case forthis probably would be at Manchester, Chester and Carlisle, inall of which genuine masterpieces were produced; but in thesethere are considerable divergences of date. The evidence stronglytends to the idea that, as regards the greater churches, eachchurch got its woodwork carved by local men. In the case ofsmall parish churches, such as those in Norfolk, where stalls and misericords are exceptionally numerous and where thework is often (jf great excellence, we may be pretty sure thatthey employed the carvers of some important centre, such as Norwich; in fact, their stalls and misericords were " shop-made "; just as were Purbeck fonts and alabaster effigies and " tables,"and even great stone reredoses such as that of Durham. When,however, we meet such work as that at Weston-in-Gordano,Somerset, we may be pretty sure that the village carpenter was cmpkn'cd {6^). The infreciuence of stereotyping of design addsimmensely to the interest of mediai^val wood carving as seen in the misericords. Those of Exeter do not prepare one for thoseof Ely, nor those of Gloucester for those of Worcester, northose of Westminster for those of Beverley Minster, and so with the rest. This is the more remarkable and commendablebecause the very reverse is the case with the tabernacled stalls above; probably even among experts hardly a man could befound who could discriminate from memor\' the tabernacle workof Lincoln, Chester, Manchester, Carlisle, and others that mightbe mentioned.

CHAPTER XXX ENUMERATION OF MISERICORDS

A VAST number of misericords remain, especially in collegiateand monastic churches. Lists of them are given by Mr Wildridge,page 7; Miss Phipson, page 1 19; and Messrs Cox and Harve}',page 259. But it is impossible to catalogue all the misericordsin the parish churches; in man\- parts of Norfolk and Suffolkone finds examples in almost every church \-isited, however smalland remote.In respect of excellence of carving the Northern misericordssurpass all others, especially those of Ripon, Chester, Manchesterand Carlisle, of which it would well repa}- modern carvers tomake careful study. Those of Norwich cathedral also rankhigh. Those of Exeter and Wells cathedrals are early andadmirable examples.As regards interest of subject rather than excellence of execution, the misericords in Beverley Minster and Beverle}* StMary; Ely; Worcester; New College, Oxford; Lincoln; Bostondeserve special mention. The largest collections of misericordsare as follows: 118 at King's College, Cambridge; 108 in Lincoln Minster; 98 in St George's, Windsor; 68 in BeverleyMinster, and 28 in Beverley St Mary's; 68 in WinchesterCathedral and Henry the Seventh's chapel at Westminster; 64at Boston and Wells; 62 in Norwich Cathedral and New College,Oxford; 60 in Gloucester and Hereford Cathedrals; 50 atExeter, Ely, and Chester; 46 at Carlisle; 42 in All Souls',Oxford; 40 in Chichester Cathedral and 24 in St Mary'sHospital; 38 at Hexham; 36 at Hexham and Manchester; 32in Durham Cathedral and Ludlow; 28 in St David's, BristolCathedral, Leighton Buzzard and Bishop Auckland; 26 atCartmel; 25 at Nantwich; 24 at Abergavenny and Malvern; 20 at Bakewell, Maidstone and Higham Ferrers; 18 at St Paul's,Bedford; Winchester College chapel, Bishop Stortford, Minsterin Thanet, Whalley, and Tilney All Saints'; 16 at Brancepeth,in the cha[3el of Sherburn Hospital, Durham, and Canon Pyon,Herefordshire; F^aversham; Richmond, Yorkshire; and L}-nnENUMKKATKJN OF MISKKlLURDS 22$St Margaret; besides considerable numbers at Sherborne,Darlini;ton, lirancepeth, Tewkesbur)-, Lancaster, Slratffjrd-r)!!-Avon, Ottcry St Mary, Wimborne, Durhain Castle chapel,Anstey, Herts., lleniington, Northants, and elsewhere. Theabove figures, however, are not always correct; in several cases they include modern examples. Many ancient misericords havebeen turned out of churches in modern restorations. Of the misericords the most ancient set remaining is that at Kxetcr of the middle of the thirteenth century; thoseformerly in the quire of Westminster Abbey would be of con- temporaneous date. Of desks we have those of Rochester ofthe year 1227. Of stalls there survives a charming thirteenthcentury example at Hemingborough, Yorkshire; at Ratzburg,however, near Lubeck,* there are stalls of the twelfth century; their backs arc not rounded; they are made like arm-chairs,with straight elbow-rests. At Ilastieres f and Gendron-Celles,both near Dinant, Belgium, arc simple stalls of the thirteenthcentury.

• Illustrated by Maeterlinck, 1 i. t illustrated by Maeterlinck, 12.

29226CHAPTER XXXICHRONOLOGY OF MISERICORDSIn the following list such approximate dates arc given as maybe known with more or less certaint}-.Thirteenth Century,Exeter 12: 1279Chichester Hospital - 1290Hemingborough.Christchurch.Fourteenth Century.Winchester Cathedral 1305Sutton Courteney - 1320Chichester Cathedral- 1330Wells Cathedral - 1330Ely Cathedral - - 1338Lancaster- - - 1340Gltjucester Cathedral- 1345Fordham - - . 1350^London, St Katherine's 1350^Wingfield - - - 1362Sudbur}' St George - 1362Lincoln Minster - 1370Lynn St Margaret - 1370Irthlingborough - 1376Abergavenny - - 1380Hereford Cathedral -niRONOLOCN- ()|- MrSKRIco*kDS!27VlVT]

229INDEX TO PLACES AND ILLUSTRATIONSNiiiiilhTs folUnvi'd I'v the iiaiiii' of the I'ho/oi^rap/n'r or tlie Draui^hlsinaitfijcr to /ttiistratioiisABERDICEN, 227 AlKTgavenny, 221, 224, 226Acliuni, 54 Adel, Yorkshire, 14 Alne, Yorkshire, 36, 39, 42, 55 Amboisc, 33 Amiens, 57, 85, 115, 137Amsterilain, 187 Ancona, 6Anstey, Herts., 225 Athens, 16 Attenhorouijjh, Notts., 41, K. I,. Cuilford Auckland Castle, Durham, 216 Autun, 1S5 Auxerre Cathedral, 1S3. St Cermain's,17SAvicjnon, 145 Aylsham, Norfnlk, 211, 21S, 227 D AKEWKLL, Derby, 10, 212, 224, Bayeux, 5 Beddington, Surrey, 227 Bedford St Paul's, 224, 227Belgium, 128, 136, 175, 180, 186, 191, 225Benefield, Northants, 218, 227 Besancon, 20SBeverley Minster, 29, 50, 89, 94, 99, 100, 102, 104, 106, III, 112, 155,157. 193. 195; C. Goulding. 37, 45. 75. 135. 164, 175. 176, 189, 190, 195, 196; W. E. Wigfall. 8, 10, 12, 14, 27, 28, 2,1, 38, 45, 47, 49,52, 62, 74, 76, 88, 91, 93, 96, 98,loi, 103, 105, 106, no, 120. 122,123, 125, 127, 131, 134, 148, 156,157, 163, 165, if)8, 169, 171, 174,17s, 176, 179, 180, 185, 187, 189,190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 207, 211,212, 213, 214, 215, 222, 223. 224, 227Beverley St Mary, 15, 61, 166,181, 183; C. Goulding. 182, JBarr. 27, 61, 62, 81, 83, 103, 137. 163, 165, 168, 169, 171, 182, 202, 206, 211, 224, 227 Bishop Auckland, 224, 227 Bishop Stortford, Herts., 39, 89, 224Bishopstone, Sussex, 8 Boston, 8, A. Gardner. 163, Wright. 10, 27, 35, 52, 77, 103, 106, 163, 165, 169, 172,178, 224, 226Bourges, i, 52Bradley, Lincolnshire, 123 Brampton (Hunts.), 91, 93, 96,122, 123, 21 1, 226Brancepeth, Durham, 224, 225, 2; Brescia, 6Breslau, 52Brest, 167Bristol Cathedral, 71, 72, 73,88, 160; M. 1'. Perry. 10, 74, 87, 94, loi, 113, 126, 163, 169, 1S9, 202, 212, 214, 227Brookland, Kent, 1 14, 116, 119,122, 124, 127 Burnham Deepdale, Norfolk, 114, 119, 120, 122, 123, 124, 127168, ames123,181,212,T.90,174.74.71. 159, 224,120,116,CADOUIN Abbey, Dordogne, 82 Caen —St Pierre. 82, F. Bond.52, 82; St Redegonde, 52 Cambridge —King's College Chapel,207, 211, 213, 217, 218, 219, 224,227. St John's College, 150. TrinityHall, 156 Arch.\;ological Museum,see under Brampton Canon Pyon, Herefordshire, 224 Canterbury cloister, 75 Capua, St Maria di, 35230 INDEX TO I'LACKS AND ILLUSTRATIONSCarlisle Cathedral, 9, 37, 62, 179;F. H. Crossley. 43, James Burr.10, 38, 42, 62, 63, 108, 114, 116,119, 120, 122, 124, 126, 179, 206,211, 218, 220, 223, 224, 227Cartmel. Lancashire, 7, 59. 60; V. II. Crossley. 51, II. E. Illingworth.8, 10, 45, 51, 59, 61, 169. 206, 211,216, 217. 218, 224, 226, 227 Caversham, Oxon., 148 Cawston, Norfolk, 227Chartres, 115 Chester Cathedral, frontispiece, 15, 37, 50. 76, 107, 146, 154; F. II. Crossley. 26, 79; II. E. Illini;- worth. 16, 27, 36, 52, 77, Si, 84,85, loi, ic8, 145, 154, 160, 202,211, 212, 219, 223, 224, 226Chichester Cathedral, 13, 43, 83, 109,151; P. M. Johnston. 16, 82, 98,108, no, 15b, 171, 172, 174, 175, 204, 206, 211. 213, 220, 221, 224,226. Hospital, 12, 211, 217, 224, 226Chinnor, Oxon., 220Christchurch, Hants, 107, 203; H. E.Miller. 203, G. H. Widdows. 163, T. Wright. 88, 96, 106, 108, 149,163, 196, 202, 207, 211, 212, 216,226, 227Cirencester, 173, T. Wright. 172 Ciudad Rodrigo, Spain, 126, 174 Clapton, Northants, 52 Cnidus, 54co*cking, Sussex, 142 co*ckington, Devon, 149, I. 11. Crossley. 149, 152, 200, 211Corl)eil, St Spire, 94Corston, .Somerset, 196Courtrai, 187 Coventry, 27 Cracow, 82Croyland, Lincolnshire, 216DARLINGTON, 81, 225 Denton, Northants, 213 Derby, 19Devon, 206, 211, 227Diest, Belgium, 1 91 Dinant, 225Dordrecht, 82, 138, 186 Dresden, 62Dublin, 35 Dunblane, 227 Durham Castle, 52, H. E. Illing- worth. 10, 52, 174, 180, 191, 211. 216, 218, 225, 227. Cathedral, 8, 10, 171, 207, 212, 213, 223, 224, 227EARDISLFV, Herefordshire, 24Easby, Vorks. , 114, 119, 120, 215Fdlesborough, Bucks., 10, 12 Egypt, I, 2, 52, 53, 58Elf.ml, Staffords., 78Elis, 184 Ely Cathedral, 32, 94,98, lOO, 109, no,130, 132, 144, 153, 166, 170, 173,177, 181, 190, 198; G. H. Tyndall.134, W. M. Dodson. K, 25. i;^, 38, 41, 44, 45. 47, 52, 93, 97, loi, 106,108, no, 124, 125, 128. 129, 137,143, 149, 152, 154, 164, 166, 170,171, 172, 174, 176, 179, 180, 190,199, 202, 204, 2n, 213, 217, 221,223, 224, 226Englefield, Berks., 30Erfurt, 52 Exeter Cathedral, 6, 196, 204; E. K.I'rideaux. 7, C. H. Oakden. 7, 13, 56, 77, 205; W. Percival -Wiseman.81, 197; C. Percival- Wiseman. 23,28, 204; A. Palmer. 8, 10, 12, 14,15, 24, 25, 28, 30, 57, 64, 77, 82,199, 202, 204. 211, 212, 213, 218,219, 223, 224, 225, 226FAIRFORD, Gloucester, 227 Faversham, Kent, 85, 160, 169, 2n, 218, 224, 227Fawsley, Nortliants, 185Flanders, 181, 186, 1S7, 191 Florence, 5, 53 Fordham, Cambs., 2n, 213, 226Fordington, Dorset, 3 Fotheringhay, Northants, 217Freiburg-in-Breisgau, 25Fressingtield, SuHblk, 145 GAMLINGAY, Cambs., 211, 227 Gayton, Northants, 138, 145, 212, 227Gendron-Celles, Belgium, 225 Ghent, 59Gloucester Cathedral, 80, 85, 99, 102,104, 121, 124, 137, 142; R. W.Dugdale. 12, 14, 27, 28, 47, 80,84, 85, 98, 99, loi, 103, 106, n9,124. 128, 137, 138, 142, 150, 180, 201, 211, 213, 217, 223, 224, 226Great Doddington, Northants, 96GrimsVjy, 123 HAARLEM, 187 Ilaie-aux- Bonshommes, Bel- gium, 180INDFA TO I'l.ACKS AND ILLUSTRATIONS 231Halifax, 10, 227Ilalsall, Lanes., 65, io2; G. G.Buckley. 63, loi, 227Ilar^reiive, SiilTolk, 52Ilaslieres, Heltjium, 225Ilemint^horoui;!!, X'orks., 203, 1'". 11. Crossley. 202, 212, 225, 226lleminglon, Norlhanls, 108, 217, 2lS, 225/227Hereford All Saints', 65, 109, 198A. J. Wilson. 10, 66, 106, 108, 189, 199, 202, 204, 211, 226. Cathedral, 172, 188; A. J. Wilson.10, 137, 172, 179, 1S3 189, 211,224, 226Ilexliam, 224, 227 Highani Ferrers, 155, C. F. Nunneley.218, 221; G. G. Buckley. 6, 193, 211, 212, 213, 217, 218, 220, 221,224, 227Ilihlcsheiin. 6iIlirsaugh, (Jerniany, 209Holt, Wurcs., 85lloogstraeten, Belgium, 136, 137, 187, 191 Hull, 174T FIFLl), 221 1 Irthlinghorough, Northants, 217, 226Lsle d'Adani, 82KKMPEN, Germany, 76, 186, 187Kidlington, Oxon., 227King's Lynn, see LynnKing's Sutton, Norchanls, 213LANCASTER, 225, 226Langres, 136 Lausanne, 82 Lavenham, Suffolk, 13, C. F. Nunneley.16, 45, 172, 211, 213Leicester, 114, 122, 127, 165 Leighton Buzzard, 211, 224, 226Leominster, 180Lichfield, 149, 200, 221 Limerick, 34, 61, 64; P. AL Johnston.34, 61, 62, 63, 64, 206, 227Lincoln Minster, 78, S. Smith. 3, 8, 10, 15, 52, 77, 81, 91, 106, 116, 124, 129, 141, 142, 145, 150, 152, 157,161, 176, 182, 200, 202, 208, 211,213, 214, 216, 218, 223, 224, 226London — Architectural Museum, 35,67> 93- British Museum, 2, 35, 49,52, 78, 114 el se</.. 192. GreekC'hurch, London VVall, 209. Mer- maid Tavern, 14. .St Andrew Huhhard, 113. St Katherine by the Tower, 27, loi, 226. South warkC'athedral, 45, 149. Temple Bar,62. Temjile Church, 219. Tower,105. Westminster Abbey, see Westminster Louth, 90Louvain, 12S Lubeck, 225Lucca, 123 Ludlow, 9, H. v.. Illingworth. 90, 180; W. M. Dodson. 148, T. Wright. 10, 12, 14, 34, 89, 96, loi,148, 180, 182, 206, 211, 213, 218, 219, 220, 224, 226, 227 Lynn St Margaret, 17, F. M. lieloe; 18, 1 19, 206, 21 1, 216, 224, 225, 226.St Nicholas, 68, F. Bond; 96, F. M. Beloe; 96, 123, 202, 212, 213, 217, 218, 227 Lyons, 35, 52, 82, 131MAIDSTONE, 88, 212, 216, 217, 218, 224, 226, 227 Malpas, Cheshire, 10 Malvern, 1 17, 191; W. Percival-Wise- man. 10, 47, 57, 91, 94, 116, 119,120, 123, 126, 170, 192, 201, 211,217, 220, 222, 224, 227Manchester, 23, 75; F. H. Crossley.24i 52, 59, 60, 76, 78, 103, 106, 113, 160, 169, 171, 191, 192, 207, 210, 212, 216, 218, 223, 224, 227Milton, Dorset, 149Milverton, Somerset, 91 Minster-in-Thanet, Kent, 87, 88, 89,145, 156, 180, 212, 215, 224, 226 Modena, 123 Montbenoit, 82, 137NANTWICH, Cheshire, 165, T. Wright. 165, 218, 224, 226Newcastle-on-Tyne, 106 Newton, Vorks. , 39Northill, Beds., 226 North Walsham, Norfolk, 217, 226 Norwich Cathedral, 2, 138; A. Gardner.II, 47; S. Gardner. 10, 12, 47, 90,137, 150, 183, 211, 212, 2x8, 219,224, 226, 227. St Gregory, 149. St Peter-per-Mountergate, 52, 77. St -Swithin, 213!32 INDEX TO PLACES AND ILLUSTRATIONSOTTKKV ST MAKV, Devon, 217, 225Over, Canihs., 167 Oxford—All Souls' College, 10, 35,108, 149, 212, 217, 218, 224, 227. Hodlcian, 44, 78. C<jrpus Christ! College, 45. Lincoln College, 207, 213, 217, 227. Magdalen College,108. New College, 8, 15, 35, 77, 149, 157, 162, 163, 167, 217, 224, 227 PAIGNTON, Devon, 136Paris, 2, 96, 105, 115, 1 16 Passenham, Norlhanls, 157, 227Paltinglon, Vorks. , 200Pavia, 5 Peterborough, 212, 217Picardy, 189Pisa, 24, 33Placentia, 187 Pompeii, 103Presle, 191 Purbeck, 223 RATZBURG, 225 Ravenna, 4 Reims, 115Ribbesford, Worcester, 35 Richmond, Vorks., 174, 212, 215, 224, 227 Ripon ]Minster, 9, 164; II. K. Illing- worth. 23, G. Parker. 136, W.Maitland. 140, James Barr. 28,39,84, 98, 106, 129, 136, 141, 161, 163,165, 174, 191, 206, 207, 212, 215, 222, 223, 224, 227Ripple, Gloucesier, 92, 117, liS, 121, 125, 126; R. W. Dugdale. 91, 116, 119, 120, 122, 124, 126, 127, 179, 211, 220, 222, 227Rochester, 47, 225 Rome, 4, 5, 32, 145 Romsey, 29, 30 Rotherham, Yorks., 227 Rothwell, Norlhants, 212 Rouen, 186, T. Wright. 82, 169, 1S6,187, 191 Ruardean, Gloucester, 3 Ryther, Vorks., 221 ST ALBAN"S, 91, 114, 116, 119,120, 122, 123, 124, 125, 144St David's, 87, 155; W. M. Dodson.87, 96, 156, 167, 212, 220, 224, 227St Katherine's, London, lOl St Lo, ISt \'igean's, Forfarshire, 35Salisbury, 74, 128, 149Sail, Norfolk, 227 Saxmundham, Suffolk, 16 Selby, 200Semur, 115Senlis, 115Sens, 67, noSherborne, Dorset, 90, 146, 152; W.Wonnacott. iii, 112; C. K.Nunneley. 75, 90, no, n3, 137,145, 152, 192, 204, 212, 217, 225,227Siena, 5, 24.Soham, Cambs., 213Southwell, Notts., 200Stowe, Lincoln, 124Stowlangtoft, Norfolk, 57, 226 Stow Longa, Hunts., 10 Stowmarket, Suffolk, 103Strassburg, 167 Stralford-on-Avon, 151, Harold Baker.in, 12, no, 150, 183, 192, 212, 225Sudbury, Suffolk, 217, 226Sutton Courtenay, Berks., 2n, 213,219, 226 Swinbrook, Oxon., 227 Swindon, 158 Swine, \'orks. , 212, 213, 226TANSOR, Norlhants, 197, W.Mailland. 220, G. G. Buckley.199, 2n, 218, 219, 220, 226Tarascon, 39Tattershall, Lincolnshire, 227 Tewkesbury, 225 Throwley, Kent, 212, 227Tigris, 26Tilney All Saints", Norfolk, 213, 224,227 Tong, Salop, 212, 217, 226Torcello, 25 uI'i'INGHAM, 90VENICE, 2, 25 Verona, 24Verteuil, 82Vezelay, 57 Vienna, 62 WAKEFIELD, 213, 216, 227Walcourt, 186 Walpole St Peter, Norfolk, 213, 227INDKX TO I'l.ACKS AND ILLUSTRATIONS 233Wc'llin^horout^li, 95, C. J. Nunneloy.96, loi, 206, 212, 3l6, 226 Wells Cathedral, 107, 108; J. I'hillips. 10, 12, 35, 81, 106, 149, 1S9, 200,202, 204, 211, 217, 224, 226Westhall, Suffolk, 162 Westminster, 3, 1 1; D. Weller. 174, T. Wri},'ht. Ahl.ey, 3, 6, 10, ^i, 34, 113, 128, 138, 148, 149, 174, 176, 180, 189, 191, 202, 204, 207, 209,212, 213, 214, 218, 221, 223, 225,227. Henry NTI.'s Chapel, 3, 26,57. 217, 224W'eston-in-Ciordanc), Somerset, 63, C. I'ercival-Wiseman. 63, 223 West Rouiiton, Yorks., 14 West well, Rent, 49Whalley, Lancashire, 185, V. li. Crossley. 35, 78, 185, 186, 224, 227 Wimborn'e Minster, 207, 212, 213, 216, 22c 227 Winchelsea, Sussex, 221 Winchester Cathedral, 173, T. Wrii^ht.8, 10, 45, 145, 149, 172, 204, 210,211, 213, 217, 218, 224, 226. College Chapel, loi, 108, 143, 206, 211,224, 226Windsor —St (jcorjje's Chapel, 42, 52, 53, 88, 113, 124, 150, 166, 168, 176, 180, 196. 206, 212, 224, 227Wingfield, Suffolk, 213, 217, 226 Woodstock, Oxon., 105 Wootton-under-lvlge, 14 Worcester C'athedral, 92, 93, 95, 97, loi, 118, 131, 133, 134, 135; 139, 143. 151. 159. 183; C. H. Shuttle- worth. 15, 16, 35, 41, 57, 62, 64, 78, 91, 93, 94, 95, 97, loi, 116, 119, 120, 122, 124, 125, 126, 128, 129,130. '3'. '34. I3«. 142, 150, 159.167, 171, 172, 174, 176, 179, 183, 184, 191, 204, 211, 219, 220, 221,222, 223, 224, 226Worle, Somerset, 117, 215; 1*. l'>. Burroughs. 1 16, 199, 206, 211, 215, 227 YORK MINSTER, 198, W. Maitland. 119, 120, 122, 123, 124, 127, 137, 183, 1S6, 199, 212, 217,21S, 226. I'arisli churches, 201.St Margaret's, 114.30234INDEX RERUMABELARD, 25 Abraham, 131 Absalom, J3S Adam, 31 — and Eve, 40, 129, 130/Elian, 24/Esop, 85Agriculture, 91 Alewife, 89, 182 Alexanders flight, 78 Alexander the Great, 56, 81 Almanacks, 115 Amphisb;ena, 64 Amusem*nts, 108 Annunciation, 142 Antelope, 55 Ape, 103. 181April, 120Afjuarius, 116 Argus, 18Aries, 120Aristotle, 19, 81 Ark, 44, 54, 130 Armour, 219Ascension, 145 Assumption, 145Assyria, i August, 122Avarice, 148, 180Aviation, 78BABOON, 103 Bacchus,;Ball flower, 219Barnacles, 57Basilisk, 55Bat, 106Bear, 70 — bailing, loi Beaver, 42Bell the cat, 187Belshazzar, i Birching, 90Birds of a feather, 187 Boar hunting, 98. 123 Boat building, 96Breeches, 191C.ESAR, 30, 3SCaleb, 134 Calendar, 1 15 Cart before horse, 189Carving, 96Cat, 7;i, 106 — and fiddle, 185 — hanged, 192 Centaur, 14 Charadtius, 54 Chronology of misericords, 226Circumcision, 142Classical design, 207 — mythclogy, 5 Clergy satirised, 17Sco*ckatrice, 55Collegiate stalls, 217 Composite monsters, 58Confession, 162Contortionists, 108, 199, 202 Cooking, 88 Copyism, 223Coronation, 145 Corporal punishment,Costume, 29, 219 Country life, 91 Cow, 106, 120Criteria of date, 215Crocodile, 2, 39, 42, 58Ctesias, 19 DANXIXG, 108, 175Daniel, I Date palm, 4 Dating misericords. 215David, 137 December, 125Delilah, 137Dentists satirised, 170Design, principles of, 200Devil, 148, 167 Doctors satirised, 168 Dog and bone, 106 — and pi)t, 88 — hanged, 192 Dolphin, 14 Dove, 44Dragon, 58INDEX RF.KU\r 235EAGLE, 34, 78Eastern mythology, i Eden, 130 Egypt, I, 2 Elephant, 27, 151, 63i:ik, 30I'lveiyday life, 87 Expulsion, 130FARMING, 91Eei)iiiary, 116Figure carving, 128 — subjects, 200Fish s\'nihol, 10, 12, 35, 38Flail, '123Flails, 93Foliage, 200, 219Foliated ornament, 202Fool, jirofessional, noFootball, 101 Fox, 36, 86 — hunting, 98Friars, 165GAGx, iSo Games, 97, 113 Gambling, iSo Gangdays, 120Giant, 138 Gleaning, 123(iolden calf, 134Goliath, 138 Good Shepherd, 143(iossip in church, 167 Grapes, bunch of, 134Griffin, 60, 80Grimacers, no HAIR, 221 Hare, 35 Hare hunting, 98Hart, 31 Harvesting, 91, 93, 122 Hawking, 98, 108, 125 Haymaking, 91 Headdress, 219 Hen and chickens, 106, 157 Heraldry, 193, 216Herodias' daughter, 108 Herons, 108Hesperides, 5 Hobby horse, 113 Home life, 179 Hours, 209Hunting, 97 Husband and wife, 189 Hyena, 42TGHXEUMENON, 42 1 Indecent subjects, 176Inscriptions, 194lo, 18Isaac, 131 JAEL and Sisera, 139 January, 1 16 Jews, 44, 47, 55, 136 John Baptist, 143 Jonah, 141 Joshua, 134Jousts, 105, 159 Judgment l)a\-, 145 Judith and liolofernes, 141 July, 122 June, 120LAHVRINTII, 5 Lamb and tlag, 157 Landiing, 1 19, 120 Lathom legend, 78 Leaning slafts, 208Lechery, 182 Ledge supporters, 199 Leoncerole, 64 Lindworm, 63Lion, 22 — and unicorn, 52 — strangled, 137Lizard, 43Luce, 199Luther, 48 MAGI, 142 Mandrakes, 31 Manna, 44Manticora, 64 March, 119 Marys, three, 145 Masks, 18 Masses, 209 Mass satirised, 167 May, 120 Menageries, 105 Mendicant Orders, 165 Mercury, 5 Mermaid, 10, 199 Mermenk, 69Metempsychosis, i Milton, 35 Minotaur, 5Minstrels, 171 Miracle plays, 148Miser, 148, 180Misericords, etymology, 20 Moldings of seat, 2122^56 INDEX KERUMMonk calf, 68 Monkey, 103 Monoceros, 49 Months and seasons, 114 Moral lessons, 177 Moses, 131 Much cry and little wool, 187 Musical instruments, 171 Music satirised, 171NARWHAL, S5Nativity, 142 Natural History, 106Net, woman in, 183 New Testament, 142 Noah, 130 November, 125 Number of misericoids, 224 Nursery rhymes, 185OCTOBER, 123Offices, 209 Old Testament, 128Orif^en, 19, 25 Orpheus, 5 Orson, 83Otter, 42 Owl, 47PANTHER, 39Papal ass, 69Partridge, 48Passion, instruments of, 145i'astimes, 108 Peaco*ck, 5 Pearls before swine, 186Pedlar and apes, 76Pelican, 44Phoenix, 3 Physiologus, 19 Pig killing, 125 Pigmies, 67Pigs, 94, 123Pliny, 19, 31, 40, 42, 54, 57, 60, 64, 67Ploughing, 91 Porphyrion, 64Posturer, 108Posturers, 199, 202Preaching friars, 165 — satirised, 163Presentation, 142Proverbs, Book of, 22Pruning, 119, 120 Pseudo-Ansonius, 115Psyche, 5QU IN TAIN, 10RABBITS, 130 Raven, 44Reclinatoria, 208 Red Riding Hood, 84Religion satirised, 162 Remora, 54 Renaissance design, 207Resurrection, 145 Reynardine, shifts of, 75 Re\nard the Fox, 70 Richard I., 138, 16Rogation days, 120 Romances, medii\:val, 70Rosary, 165SAGITTARIUS, 14St Augustine, 46, 156St Ktheldreda. 154St Gabriel, 150St George, 2, 3, 150St Giles, 152St Govan, 156St Hubert, 2,1 St Jerome, 26St John, 150St Luke, 149St Margaret, 152St Mark, 149St Martin, 152St Matthew, 149St Michael, I, 3 St Mildred, 156St Thomas Aquinas, 46St Werburgh, 154Saints, 149 Salamander, 53 Samson, 136Satyr, 10, 16 Scold, 180Scripture subjects, 128Seasons, 114Seals, plan of, 211, 218Sedilia, 209Sensuality, 182 September, 123Sepulchre, 145 Sequence of subjects, 214Serpent, 40Sexton, 96Sheepshearing, 93, 122 Shepherds at Bethlehem, 142 Shoeing. 94 — goose, 186 Shoemaking, 96Shoes, 222INDEX RKklJM 237" Shop nuuk' " worlc, 223Sil.yls, 5 Siren, 8Sir ^'v;lin, 76Sl;ui|;htering, 94, 125 Solomon, 22 — Judgment of, 13S Sow and jiigs, 106 Sowing, ()i Spinning, ijoSports, 97 Stag hunting, 98Stalls, 216Stools, two, 187 Sun worship, 3Su|)port(.'rs, 213 Swallow, 48 Swan and boat, 77 Swineherd, 94, 123 Symbolism, 129, 157 TEMTTATION, 41, 129Terrobuli, 57Tertallian, 69 Tharanda, 64Theft, 182 Theseus, 5 Threshing, 93, 123Tiger, 26 Toi«y turvy, 188 Tournaments, 159 Trades, 96Travellers' tales, 67 Tree of Life, 61Tumbler, 108 Tybert, 73 Type and anlil\pe, 129UNIC(JRN, 49 Use of misericords, 209 Urine test, 169VALENTINE, 83Vcrnicle, 156Vintage, 124Virgil, 5, 15, 83Virgin Mary, 145 WI;AVER, 96 Weeding, 122 Weighing souls, i Whale, 38 Wife beating, 187 Wise saws, 185 Wodehouse, 16, 63, 83 — carving, 96 Wood chopping, 127 Worcester misericords, 129 World turned upside down, 188Wrestling, loi Wyvern, 62 zODIAC, 114Printed at The Darjen Press, Edinburgh

BY THE SAME AUTHORGOTHIC ARCHITECTUREIN ENGLANDAn Analysis of the Origin and Development of EnglishChurch Architecture from the Norman Conquest to the Dissolution of the MonasteriesWith 1,254 Illustrations, comprising^ 785 Photographs, Sketches, and Measured Drawings, and 469 Plans, Sections, Diagrams, andMoldings. Imperial 8vo, 800 pp., handsomely bound in art canvas,gilt. Price 31s. 6d. net Published by B. T. BATSFORD, 94 High Holborn, LondonSOME PRESS NOTICESThe Times. —" Mr Bond has given us a truly monumental work onEnglish ("lOthic Architecture in his profusely illustrated and very fully indexed volume of some 800 pages. ... As a mine of erudition, of detailed analysis and information, and of criticism on EnglishMediaeval Church Architecture, the book is worthy of all praise. Forstudents it must be of lasting value; for authentic reference it will belong before it is likely to be in any way seriously superseded; while thelavish illustrations, many of them unpublished photographs, must beof permanent interest to all." The AthencBiitn. —^"This is, in every sense of the word, a great book.It at once steps to the front as authoritative." The Building News. —"A remarkable book. . . . Perfectly orderly,and most complete and thorough, this great book leaves nothing to bedesired." The Reliquary.-—"The more expert a man is as a Church Architector as an intelligent ecclesiologist, the more grateful will he be to MrBond for the production of a noble volume like that now under notice." The Spectat07-. —"The whole book is extraordinarily full, extraordinarily minute, and enriched by a wealth of illustrations, and must standfor many years to come as the book of reference on the subject ofEcclesiastical Gothic in England for all architects and archc'eologists."The Westminster Gazette. —" Mr Bond gives us an immense quantity of material—the result of the most painstaking and laborious re- search; he has illustrated every chapter, not only with photographs,but with the most admirable diagrams of mouldings and details; he hasscarcely missed a church of any importance in his search for examples.In all these respects he places the architect and the architectural student under an immense obligation."The Pall Mall Gazette. —" ArchcXologist, scholar, and geologist, heis something more than a mere enthusiast, for to the ardour of his argument he brings deep technical mastery, much wide research, andscientific knowledge. . . . The book is one of the most absorbingthat we have read for a long time in any field." Bjdietin Monumental.—" Le grand travail sur I'architecture gothiqueanglaise."BY THE SAME AUTHORSCREENS AND GALLERIES IN ENGLISH CHURCHESA handsome volume, containing 204 pp., with 152 Illustrations, reproduced from Photographs and Measured Drawings. Octavo,strongly bound in cloth. Price ts. net LONDON: HENRY FROWDE, Oxford University Press SOME PRESS NOTICESBuilder. —" When \vc look at the detailed photographs we realise the richness of the field which Mr Bond has traversed, and congratulatehim on the choice of his subject. His method is one of singularthoroughness from the ecclesiological standpoint."Journal of the Architectural Association. —" As a record of thescreens remaining in our churches it cannot be valued too highly. Nobook till now has brought such a number together, or traced their development in so full and interesting a manner. ... A mostdelightful book."Builders Journal. —"The author may be congratulated on the pro- duction of a book which, in text as well as in illustrations, is of strikingand inexhaustible interest; it is the kind of book to which one returns again and again, in the assurance of renewed and increased pleasure at each reperusal."Tablet.—"The numerous excellent illustrations are of the greatestinterest, and form a veritable surprise as to the beauty and variety ofthe treatment which our forefathers lavished upon the rood screen." British Weekly. —"The book abounds with admirable illustrations of these beautiful works of art, so perfect even in the minute details that any one interested in the art of woodcarving could reproduce the designs with ease from the excellent photographs which occur onalmost every page. There is also a series of ' measured drawings ' ofgreat beauty and interest." Ne7U York Nation.—" It is not easy to praise too highly the simpleand effective presentation of the subject and the interest of the bookto all persons who care for ecclesiology or for decorative art." Bibliophile. —X\\\'=> excellent book is a sign of the times; of the reawakened interest in the beautiful and historic. ... A model ofscholarly compression. Of the finely produced illustrations it is difficult to speak in too high terms of praise.'" Daily Graphic. —" Mr Bond has produced a work on our ecclesiastical screens and galleries which, like his larger work on the ' GothicArchitecture of England,' is in the first degree masterly. His knowledgeof his subject, exact and comprehensive, is compressed into a minimumamount of space, and illustrated by a series of photographs andmeasured drawings which render the work of permanent value." Bulletin Monumental. —"Apres avoir analyse, aussi exactement quepossible, rinteressant etude de M. Bond, nous devons le feliciter denous avoir donne ce complement si utile a son grand ouvrage."BY THE SAME AUTHORFONTS & FONT COVERSA handsome volume containing 364 pages, with 426 Ilhistrations reproduced from Photographs and Measured Drawings. Octavo.strongly bound in cloth. Price 12s. net LONDON: HENRY FROWDE, Oxford University PressSOME PRESS NOTICESGuardian. —"Mr Bond is so well known by his monumental workon 'Gothic Architecture in England,' and by his beautiful book on'Screens and Galleries,' that his name alone is a sufficient guaranteefor this new volume on ' Fonts and Font Covers,' the most completeand thorough that has yet appeared."Church Times. —" The finest collection of illustrations of fonts andfont covers yet attempted. ... A real delight to the ecclesiologist."Commoinvealth. —"A sumptuous monograph on a very interestingsubject; complete and thorough."Church Quarterly Review. —" It is most delightful, not only to indulge in a serious perusal of this volume, but to turn over its pagesagain and again, always sure to find wiihin half a minute some beautifulillustration or some illuminating remark."Irish Builder. —"This book on ' F'onts and l'"ont ('overs' is a mostvaluable contribution to niedi;iival study, put together in masterlyfashion, with deep knowledge and love of the subject."]Vestmi)ister Gazette. —" Every one interested in church architecture and sculpture will feel almost as much surprise as delight in Mr Bond'sattractive volume on ' I'onts and Font Covers.' The wealth of illustra- tions and variety of interest are truly astonishing." Journal of the Society of Architects. —"The book is a monument of painstaking labour and monumental research; its classification is mostadmirable. The whole subject is treated in a masterly way with perfectsequence and a thorough appreciation of the many sources of development; the illustrations, too, are thoroughly representative. To manythe book will come as a revelation. We all recognise that the fonts are essential, and in many cases beautiful and interesting features in our ancient churches, but few can have anticipated the extraordinary wealth of detail which they exhibit when the photographs of all thebest of them are collected together in a single volume."Outlook. —"Mr Francis Bond's book carefully included in one's luggage enables one, with no specialist's knowledge postulated, to pursue to a most profitable end one of the most interesting, almost, we could say, romantic, branches of ecclesiastical architecture. . . . This book, owing to its scholarship and thoroughness in letterpressand illustrations, will doubtless be classic: in all its methods it strikes us as admirable. The bibliography and the indexes are beyond praise." 31BY THE SAME AUTHORVISITORS' GUIDE TO WESTMINSTER ABBEY93 pages of text, abridged from the eighteenth and nineteenth chapters of the authors larger work on '• Westminster Abbey,"consisting chiefly of description of the Tombs, Monuments, andCloisters, with 15 Plans and Drawings and 32 PhotographicIllustrations. Price is. net LONDON: HENRY FROWDE, Oxford University PressSOME PRESS NOTICESGuardian.—"There is probably no better brief handbook. MrBond's quaHfications for the task are beyond question. By the use ofvaried type, ingenious arrangement, and excellent tone-blocks andplans, the book attains a high standard of lucidity as well as ofaccuracy."Building News. —"This little work is characterised by its terseness, directness, and practical treatment. A carefully compiled and scholarlyguide-book."Architect. — "V\\\':^ book will e.xcellently and admirably fulfil its purpose. ... A splendid itinerary, in which almost every inch of theway is made to speak of its historical connections.*' Binnini^/iam Daily Post. —"Concise, informative, reliable, andadmirably illustrated." Western Morning A^e7vs. —" By his key plan and very clear directionsas to where to find the numerous side chapels, historic monuments,and other objects of interest, Mr Bond makes it possible for a visitor to find his way round the building at his leisure. It refreshes one'sknowledge of English history, and is supplemented by thirty-twoe.xcellent plates, which by themselves are worth the shilling chargedfor it." Scotsman.— ^' A more comi^lete and dependable guide to theNational Pantheon could not be desired." Architectural Rtvieiv. —"This is an excellent little textbook. MrBond is to be congratulated in having introduced into it an interestingelement of history. The notes in small print should make the visit to the Abbey both more profitable and more interesting. The key planand the numerous small plans are extremely clear and easily read. The information given is concise and to the point, and a word of specialpraise must be given to the plates at the end; the subjects of these arewell chosen and are illustrated by very good photographs."Antiquary. —"This little book, strongly bound ui linen boards, givesconcisely and clearly all the information the ordinary visitor is likely to require. Cheap, well arranged, well printed, abundantly illustrated and well indexed, this handy book, which is light and ' pocketable,'is the best possible com[janion for which a visitor to our noble Abbeycan wish: it is an ideal uuide."BY THE SAME AUTHORWESTMINSTER ABBEYA handsome volume, containing 348 pages, with 270 Photographs, Plans, Sections, Sketches, and Measured Drawings.Octavo, strongly bound in cloth. Price los. net LONDON: HENRY FROWDE, Oxford University PressSOME PRESS NOTICESOxford Ma_i:;azine. —"All who love the Abbey will bu L:;ratL'fiil for the skill and affection bestowed on this admirable work.' BinningJiam Post. —" W^ith the history of the Abbey the aullior interweaves the life of the Benedictines, peopling the building with its occupants in the centuries when England was a Catholic country, anddoes It with such skill than one can almost imagine oneself at tlie services.IL?lg/ishl/lall."-'^'^T\^i^ writer handles his subject with consunnnatc skill, and his reward will lie in the unmeasured praise of his many readers."' Guardian. —"A book which brings fresh enthusiasm, and will impart a new impetus to the study of the Abbey and its history." Churcli Times. —"IJeyond doubt the best volume that has beenissued on the subject." Scotsman. —"At once instructive and delightful, it more than justifiesits existence by its historical and architectural learning.Liverpool Daily Courier. —"We found the earlier parts of the bookmost fascinating, and have read them over and over again."' Architectural Association Jouriial—"Bright and interesting; evincingthe author's invariable enthusiasm and characteristic industry." Western Mornino- N'eivs. —"To say that the book is interesting is to say little; it is a monument of patient and loving industry and extremethoroughness, an inexhaustible mine of delight to the reader, general ortechnical." Outlook. —"The author discusses the architecture with a minutenessthat might terrify the inexpert if it were not for the sustained ease andinterest of his style; great is the fascination of the expert hand whenits touch is light."Saturday Review.—" Mr Bond leaves us more than ever proud of what is left to us of the stately Benedictine house of God, which is to the entire English-speaking world a common bond and home."Antiquary. —"It has a wealth of capital illustrations, is preceded bya bibliography, and is sup[)lied with good indexes to both illustrations and text."

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARYLos Angeles This book is DUE on the last date stamped below.OCT 2 9 1993P^CTDucJOH25 WOREC'D LD-URLA WK MAR 1FEB 1 8 1994aWK0CT22l^REC'D LD- ~'47584 app 4 ^h^3 1158 0088079f(nli^il*;?-